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The Principles and Practice of 

PRUNING 



Je weniger wir zu schneiden haben am Baum, desto 
gesunder bleibt er und desto schoner entwickein sich 
Friichte. — Karl Koopmann. 

[Translation. — The less a tree is cut, the sounder 
It will be, and the better its fruits.] 



By 
M. G. KAINS 

Lecturer on Horticulture, 
Columbia University 



rr 




NEW YORK 

ORANGE JUDD COMPANY 

1917 



Copyright, 1917, by 
ORANGE JUDD COMPANY 

All Rights Reserved 



m -6 19(8 

Printed in U. S. A. 
©C1.A492866 



59 






^0 tf)E memory 

of 

iHp (^ranbfatfjer 

in tofjo£fe toellmanagEb plantation 

3 gaineb mp firsft pruning experience 

anb bisicobereb mp lobe tor 

fruit grotoing 



If Trees Could Talk 



Frank L. Brace in Tree Talk 

If trees could talk, the tales they'd tell 

Would surely be worth listening to. 
The trees that form the shady dell, 

Where lovers their fond vows renew; 
The trees that guard the home, the street 

Where children play and elders rest; 
What varied tales would they repeat 

Of hopes deferred or hearts oppressed 

Of happy lives divinely blest. 

If trees could talk, how oft we'd hear 
Of gross mistreatment, lack of care, 

Borne patiently for many a year, 
While thoughtless mortals unaware 

Of how trees suffer, why they fail, 
Put forth no effort to repel 

The foes that constantly assail. 

Sad tales like this we know full well, 
A myriad suffering trees would tell. 

If trees could talk, methinks their words 

Would sound a protest loud and stern 
For loss of their good friends, the birds, 

And make a plea for their return. 
Trees need the birds and so do we. 

In the incessant fight to stay 
The foes that so persistently 

On flowers and fruit and foliage prey. 

Our allies, vigilant, are they. 

Trees cannot talk, and yet, to him 

Who truly loves these friends of man. 

Their every leaf and flower and limb 
Is vocal. Since the world began 

The trees have been our steadfast friends. 
And our well-being constantly 

Upon their life and growth depends. 
How faithful then our care should be. 
How fondly should we love the tree. 



PREFACE 



FEW practices in the handling- of plants, especially of 
fruit trees and bushes, attract so much interest as 
those of pruning. The methods are so varied, the 
results so diverse and the apparently contradictory 
opinions of growers so tenaciously held that this subject 
is always one of the surest to arouse discussion and hold 
attention at horticultural society meetings and wherever 
demonstrations are given by agricultural colleges and 
schools and by farm bureaus. 

During the past two decades the principles of plant 
physiology have been more satisfactorily applied to plant 
production and crop management than ever before in the 
history of agriculture. Especially during the latter half 
of this period have experiment station and other workers 
been devoting annually increasing attention and time to 
pruning investigations in their efiforts to discover new 
truths and to prove not only disputed and undecided 
points, but to test many beliefs and rules of thumb which 
have been accepted as true, but which increasing knowl- 
edge of plant physiology has led these investigators to 
challenge. Much has been discovered, much verified and 
much disproved. But the reports of these investigations 
are necessarily so scattered that very few fruit growers 
have access to them, and students of agricultural col- 
leges and schools, even if they know how to search, lack 
the time to hunt through the libraries of their respective 
institutions to find this literature. Many bulletins and 
reports are out of print, so none can be had. Hence the 
demand for a book which shall present the really im- 
portant features of these investigations as well as set 



Vlll PREFACE 

forth the fundamental principles based upon the laws of 
plant growth. 

The writings on these pruning investigations have 
been quoted freely, the original investigator's own words 
being used in preference to mine. This I feel simple 
justice both to investigator and reader, because in any 
re-statement something is sure to be lost. The reader 
will herein find only slight condensations of the investi- 
gators' original text. Among the writers so quoted are : 
Professors Lewis of Oregon, Bioletti of California, Blake 
of New Jersey, Whitten and Chandler of Missouri, Keffer 
of Tennessee, Drinkard of Virginia, Howe and Gladwin 
of New York, Selby of Ohio, Newman of South Caro- 
lina, and Collins of the United States Department of 
Agriculture. 

In the preparation of this volume I have found the 
Experiment Station Record, published by the United 
States Department of Agriculture, of immeasurable help 
in searching for literature on pruning by means of its 
abstracts and voluminous indexes. From it occasional 
brief passages, mainly concerning foreign investigations, 
have been copied, with credit to the original sources of 
information instead of to the Record itself. 

My special thanks are due to Professor W. G. Brierley 
of the University of Minnesota for photographs of prun- 
ing tools (Figures 107, 108, 110, 114, 116 and 118) and 
the legends which accompany them; to Mr. B. F. Wil- 
liamson of New York, who made almost all of the pen 
and Ink drawings, either from rough sketches or from the 
original sources in bulletins, reports, etc. ; and to Mr. 
E. T. Kirk of the Pennsylvania State College for photo- 
graphs of local subjects, mostly gathered in the college 
orchard and on the campus. The other photos, except 
as specified under "Acknowledgments," were "snapped" 
by my own camera, mainly at Stat? College, Pa., and 
developed by Mr. Kirk. 



PREFACE IX 

I have had too long experience in editing books and 
articles to suppose that this volume is physically perfect. 
I therefore request that readers kindly note any least 
error and notify either the publishers or me, so that cor- 
rection may be made in future editions. In the hope, 
hovi^ever, that these errors v\^ill be few and that the book 
will meet the need of those for whom it has been written, 
I commend it to all who may have occasion to use 
pruning tools. 

M. G. KAINS. 

Port Washington, L. I. 



ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 



The following' individuals and institutions have sup- 
plied illustrations referred to by the figure numbers 
opposite their names. 

Prof. W. G. Brierley, University of Minnesota at St. Paul 

107, 108, 110, 114, 116, 118 

California Experiment Station at Berkeley 

257, 258, 265, 282 to 286, 288 to 290 

Colorado Experiment Station at Fort Collins 72, 136a 

Connecticut Experiment Station at Storrs 

25 to 27, 209, 215, 216, 302 

Cornell Experiment Station at Ithaca, N. Y. 

211 to 213, 183 (redrawn by B. F. Williamson) 

Prof. A. W. Cowell, Pennsylvania State College at State College, 

Pa. 95, 304, 307, 311, 312 

Credit lost 24 

Farmers' Bulletins of the United States Department of Agri- 
culture 181, 188, 190, 248, 254 to 256, 259 to 262, 264, 266, 
274, 276 to 281, 287 

N. R. Graves of Rochester, N. Y. 298 to 300 

Idaho Experiment Station at Moscow 75 to 77, 92, 93 

Indiana Experiment Station at Lafayette 

61, 73, 132 to 134, 178, 179 

Iowa Experiment Station at Ames 70 

E. D. Kains of Wyomissing, Pa. 64, 65, 96, 310 

Kentucky Experiment Station at Lexington 269 to 273 

Maryland Experiment Station at College Park 22, 102 

A. F. Mason of State College, Pa. 2 

Massachusetts Experiment Station at Amherst 313 

Missouri Experiment Station at Columbia 

98, 120, 214, 217 to 225, 294 
New Jersey Experiment Station at New Brunswick 

121, 122, 125, 128 to 131, 195 to 198, 200 

New York Experiment Station at Geneva 74, 275 

North Carolina Experiment Station at Raleigh 33 

Ohio Experiment Station at Wooster 4, 315 to 324 



Xll ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

Oregon Experiment Station at Corvallis, Frontispiece, 23, 124, 
145 to 152, 154 to 177, 180, 182, 184 to 187, 189, 191 to 193, 
202, 235 to 237 
Rhode Island Experiment Station at Kingston__137 to 144, 240, 244 

Tennessee Experiment Station at Knoxville 234 to 266 

United States Department of Agriculture at Washington, D. C. 

301, 303, 305, 306, 308, 300 

Vermont Experiment Station at Burlington 71, 205 to 208 

Washington Experiment Station at Pullman 247 

West Virginia Experiment Station at Morgantown 

153, 238, 239, 242, 243, 245, 246, 250 to 253 

W. R. White of State College, Pa. 96 

B. F. Williamson of New York City 

10, 12, 13, 15, 17, 19, 106, 109, 113, 135. 136a. 263 
Wisconsin Experiment Station at Madison 

11, 66, 67, 123, 127, 136, 194, 314 



CONTENTS 



Page 

CHAPTER I 
Introduction ........ 1 

CHAPTER n 
Plant Physiology as Related to Pruning ... 6 

CHAPTER III 
The Philosophy of Pruning . . . . .34 

CHAPTER TV 
Buds 48 

CHAPTER V 
Pruning Principles ...... 81 

CHAPTER VI 
How Wounds Heal 121 

CHAPTER VII 
Prevention and Repair of Mechanical Injuries . c 138 

CHAPTER VIII 
Dressings for Wounds ...... 154 

CHAPTER IX 
Pruning Nursery Stock 167 

CHAPTER X 
Pruning Young Trees 186 

CHAPTER XI 
Pruning Mature Trees ...... 241 



XIV CONTENTS 



Page 



CHAPTER XII 
Care of Top-Worked Trees ..... 274 

CHAPTER XIII 
Bush Fruit Pruning ...... 279 

CHAPTER XIV 
Grape Pruning and Training ..... 294 

CHAPTER XV 
Pruning Ornamental Trees and Shrubs . . . 354 

CHAPTER XVI 
Dwarf Tree Pruning and Training .... 364 

CHAPTER XVII 
Odd Methods of Pruning and Training . . . 371 

CHAPTER XVIII 
Practical Tree Surgery ...... 384 

CHAPTER XIX 
Rejuvenation of Neglected Trees .... 405 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 



Fig. 
1 

2 

3 

4 

5 
6 



9 

10 
11 

12 
13 

14 
15 
16 
17 
18 
19 
20 
21 
22 
23 
24 
25 
26 



Close View of Fruit Spurs of Tree — Frontispiece 

Renovating an Old Neglected Apple Tree 

Wrongly Cut Limb with Decay Hole . 

Tree Too High-Headed . . . 

First Crop of Apples After Renovation of Old 
Trees ...... 

Meristematic Cell from Root Tip of Maize 

Chlorenchyma Cell Showing Starch Grains and 
Chloroplasts . 

Root Hair Greatly Magnified 

Root Tip Much Magnified . 

Rootlet Seen in Cross Section 

How Nursery Trees Are Dug 

Last Year's (Black) and This Spring's (Light) 
Roots; Also Buds of Spruce 

Epidermal Cells and Stomata from a Leaf 

Three Sections of Oak Branch Showing Vari- 
ous Tissues 

Cross Section of Stem 

Fibro-Vascular Bundle 

Contrasting Growths of Mazzard Cherry 

Diagram of Cut Edge of Leaf 

Comparison of Growth 

Cross Section of a Leaf 

Side View of an Apple Seedling 

Seedling Apple Seen from Above 

"Leggy" Peach Trees 

Result of Close Planting and Poor Pruning 

How Not to Manage Trees . 

White Pine Plantation, Before Thinning 

White Pine Plantation After Thinning . 



Page 

2 
3 
4 

5 
6 

7 
9 
9 

10 
11 

12 
15 

17 
19 
21 
22 
23 
24 
25 
27 
28 
32 
34 
35 
37 
38 



XVI 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 



Fig. 

27 Seedling Chestnut 103 Years Old 

28 How Branches Are Buried . 

29 Apple Twigs of Various Ages 

30 Dehorning with a Vengeance 

31 New Growth on "Dehorned" Peach Tree 

32 Nothing Wrong with the Roots 

33 Fruiting Habit of Fig 

34 Apple Branch Estimated 20 Years Old 

35 Fruiting Spurs of Apple 

36 Blooming Twig of Apple 

37 Peach Spur 

38 Annual Growth of Peach 

39 European Plum 

40 Japanese Plum 

41 Blossom Buds of Sour Cherry 

42 Sweet Cherry Twig in Two Sections 

43 Sweet Cherry .... 

44 Sour Cherry .... 

45 Four- Year Sweet Cherry Twig 

46 Fruit and Leaf Buds of Peach 

47 Peach Twigs That Have Borne Fruit 

48 Japanese Plum .... 

49 Currant Branches of Various Ages 

50 Gooseberry Branches, Young and Old 

51 Grape Cane One Year Old . 

52 Red Currant Bloom Cluster . 

53 Gooseberry .... 

54 Fruiting Branch of Blackberry 

55 Red Raspberry Fruiting Branch . 

56 Black Raspberry Fruiting Laterals and Cane . 

57 Characteristic Grape Shoot of a Labrusca Va- 

riety ..... 

58 How Quince Bears Bloom 

59 Quince Method of Fruiting . 

60 "Der End of Der Limit" in Pruning 

61 The Tree Butcher's Method 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATION'S XVll 



Fig. Page 

62 Upright Limb Replaces Horizontal One . 84 

63 Leader Renewed in Broken Tree . 

64 One of the Worst Foes of Trees Is the "Line 

Man" ...... 

65 Tree's Attempt to Offset Butchering 

66 Yearling Growth Cut Back . 

67 How Crooked Branches Are Made 

68 One Way Horizontal Branches Are Killed 

69 Poorly "Pruned" Pear 

70 Twenty- Year-Old Catalpa Plantation 

71 Typical Pasture-Grown White Pine 

72 Branches of Low-Headed Trees Tend to As- 

cend at Acute Angles 

73 Badly Developed Tree Head 

74 Effects of Ringing Young Trees 

75 Shoot Growth from Stubs Left in May . 

76 Shoot Growth from Winter-Pruned Stubs 

77 Effects of August Pruning 

78 How Bark Becomes Rough by Splitting and 

Healing ..... 

79 Cross Sections of White Pine (2x4) Scant 

lings Showing Branches Buried by Tissue 

80 Cross Section of Pine Scantling . 

81 Dead Limbs Being Buried . 

82 History of a Stub in Six Chapters 

83 Hoping Still 

84 More Than Three-Fourths of the Trunk Lost 

by Decay and Breakage . 

85 Flicker's Nest 

86 Cannon Ball in Oak Tree . 

87 Heart Decaying 

88 Cuts Made Heading-In Twigs 

89 Wrong Way to Cut Off Big Limbs 

90 Proper Way to Start Cutting Off Large Limb 131 

91 Second Cut Properly Made in Sawing Off 

Large Limbs . . . . .132 



86 



90 
91 
93 
94 
96 
98 

100 
104 
108 
111 
112 
113 

121 

122 

123 
123 
124 
125 

125 
126 
127 

128 
129 
130 



XVlll LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 

Fig. Page 

92 Wrong Way to Make a Cut in Removing a 

Large Limb ...... 133 

93 Right Way to Make Pruning Cut . . .134 

94 Sad Effects of Sleet Storm . . .135 

95 Label Wire Makes Girdled Limb Bloom Pre- 

maturely ...... 136 

96 A Wire Girdled This Cherry Tree . . .138 

97 Bench Supported by Living Tree . . . 139 

98 How to Handle Young Forked Tree . • . 140 

99 History of a Crotch Split . . . .141 

100 Triple Y-Crotch 142 

101 Saving a Y-Crotch 142 

102 Splitting of Peach Tree Where the Top Was 

Improperly Formed with a Y-Crotch . 143 

103 One Wrong Way to Mend Y-Crotch . . 144 

104 Living Wood Brace Between Trunk and Limb 

of Norway Maple ..... 145 

105 Well-Branched Low-Headed Peach . . 146 

106 Miscellaneous Pruning Tools . . . 147 

107 Pole Shears for Outside Branch Pruning . 148 

108 Pole Shear Pruners, Sliding Handle Type . 149 

109 Pruning Shears of Various Styles . . 150 

110 Good. Bad and Indifferent Hand Shears . . 151 

111 Common Pruning Saws .... 152 

112 Pruning Knives of Various Styles . . . 153 

113 Collection of Pruning Knives . . . 154 

114 Principal Styles of Double-Handled Lopping 

Shears ...... 155 

115 Good, Bad and Indifferent Pruning Saws . 156 

116 Types of Hand Saws for Tree Pruning . . 157 

117 Students' Combination Saws . . . 158 

118 Pole Saws Are All Awkward in Use, Make 

Ragged Cuts and Are Undesirable . . 159 

119 Where New Roots Start .... 168 

120 Various Grades of Peach Trees . . . 169 

121 Yearling Peach with Central Leader . , 170 



LIST OF ILI.rSTRATIONS XIX 

Fig. P;iK(- 

122 After Pruning: Tree in Fig. 121 . . .170 

123 How Top of Newly Set Tree May Be Pruned . 171 

124 Effect of Wind on Unstaked Trees . .172 
12.") Peach of Poor Form , . . . .173 

126 After Pruning 173 

127 Young- Trees Properly Heeled in for Tem- 

porary Storage ..... 174 

128 Yearling Peach Before Pruning . . . 175 

129 Same Tree as in Fig. 128 After Being Pruned 175 

130 Undesirable Form ..... 176 

131 Desirable Form of Growth Made by Tree 

Headed About 2 Feet When Set . . 176 

132 Developing Tops on Second-Class Trees . . 177 

133 Well-Branched Nursery Tree . . . 178 

134 Where to Cut . .' . . . . 179 

135 How to Plant a Tree 179 

136 Air Space Among Roots of Badly Planted Tree 180 

137 Tree Set Obliquely Against Wind . . 180 

138 Tree Grown from Untrimmed Nursery Stock 181 
138a Tree from "Stringfellowed" Roots . . 181 

139 Tree Grown from Stub-Pruned Roots . . 182 

140 Tree Grown from Untrimmed Nursery Plant . 182 

141 Head on Tree Where Roots W^ere Cut Back . 183 

142 At Planting Time the Branches Were Cut Back 183 

143 Tree Grown from a "Whip" with the Leader 

Left 184 

144 Head Formed by "Whip" with Leader Cut Back 184 

145 Badly Formed Tree Head . . . .186 

146 Main Branches Barren Because of Neglect . 187 

147 Old Bartlett Fruit Spurs Which Bloom Yearly 

but Seldom Bear Fruit . . . .188 

148 Young Yellow Newtown Tree Before August 

Pruning 189 

149 After August Pruning Young Yellow Newtown 189 

150 Vigorous Shoot Produced from Old Bartlett 

Pear Spur ...... 190 



XX LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 

Fig. Page 

151 Heavy Heading Back Develops Wood . . 191 

152 Typical Leader Tree ..... 192 

153 Three Decks of Frame Limbs . . . 192 

154 Modified Leader 193 

155 Modified Leader 193 

156 Good Modified Leader . . . .193 

157 Modified Leader 194 

158 Example of Unequal Growth . . . 194 

159 Good Vegetative Response from Thinning 

Bartlett Pear Spurs . . . .195 

160 Five- Year-Old Wagener Apple Tree . . 196 

161 Heading Back Makes Grow^th . . .197 

162 Good Eft"ect of July Pruning . . .198 

163 Good Example of Proper Balance Between 

Branches ...... 199 

164 Balanced and L^nbalanced Pruning . . 200 

165 Reinvigorated Top of Old Pear Tree . . 201 

166 Moderate Pruning Stimulated Shoot Formation 202 

167 Pear Spurs Which Have Borne Well in Pre- 

vious Years ...... 203 

168 Too Much Shading by L^pper Branches Killed 

This Twig 204 

169 Abundance of Fruit Spurs in the Light . . 205 

170 Partial Dehorning Failed . . . .206 

171 Heavy Pruning Makes for Wood . . . 207 

172 Vigorous Growths Follow Thinning . . 208 

173 Fruit Spurs Due to Good Pruning . . 209 

174 Typical Five-Year Winter Nelis Pear . . 210 

175 Fruit Spurs Form on Last Year's Shoots . 211 

176 Five-Year Newtown Pruned . . .212 

177 Five-Year Apple Pruned Previous Summer . 213 

178 Well-Formed Apple Tree Head . . . 214 

179 Splendid Distribution of Frame Branches on 

Four-Year Apple Tree .... 215 

180 Far Too Many Fruit Spurs .... 216 

181 Plan of Tree at Planting Time . . .217 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 



XXI 



Fig. Page 

182 Pruned Pear 218 

183 Fire-Blight Handling Kit . . . . 219 

184 Poor Type Cherry 220 

185 Three-Year Lambert Cherry Before Early July 

Pruning ...... 221 

186 Three-Year-Old Lambert Cherry Tree After 

Pruning in Early July . . . . 221 

187 Old Prune Tree After Removal of Dead Wood 

and Severe Thinning of the Living Spurs . 222 

188 Five-Branched Tree at end of First Season . 223 

189 Neglect Follow^ing Dehorning . . .224 

190 Plan of Tree Top After One Season's Growth 

in Orchard 225 

191 English Walnut 225 

192 Splendid Tvpe of Low-Headed, Spreading 

English Walnut 226 

193 Portable Brush Licinerator . . . .227 

194 Well Pruned and Open Headed . . .228 

195 Good Yearling Peach . . . .229 

196 Peach Trunk. 1 229 

197 Peach Trunk. 2 230 

198 One-Year Peach from Nursery . . . 231 

199 Good Tree Protector 231 

200 One- Year Peach from Nursery . . .232 

201 Inviting Disaster ..... 241 

202 Unpardonable "Pruning" . . . .242 

203 Cross Section of Trunk Shown in Fig. 204 . 243 

204 How Trees Bury Stubs . . . .244 

205 Winter Injured Rhode Island Greening Apple 

Tree Before Pruning in Early June . . 245 

206 Pruned Apple . . . " . . .246 

207 August 246 

208 September Showing ..... 246 

209 Healthy Pear Bark Showing Lenticels . . 247 

210 Fungi Attack Injured Bark . . . .248 

211 Pear Stub Admits Blight . . . .248 



XXll LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 

Fig. Page 

212 Blight Spread from Pruning- Wound . . 249 

213 Cankered Limb Showing Blight Exudations . 250 

214 Frost-Killed Peach Wood Variously Handled . 252 

215 Winter Injury of Peach .... 253 

216 Winter Injuries 254 

217 Poor Growth of Peach Tree Not Pruned After 

Severe Winter Injury .... 255 

218 Peach Trees Cut Back with Varying Degrees 

of Severity ...... 256 

219 Tree Headed Back More Severely Than It 

Should Be and Too Manv Branches Left . 257 

220 Properly Cut Back Peach ' . . . .258 

221 Unsatisfactory Growth of Peach Not Pruned 

Back Severely Enough After Winter Injury . 259 

222 Peach in Foreground Shows Good Growth . 260 

223 One Season's Growth of Eight-Year Peach . 261 

224 Old Mixon Free Peach with Spreading Head . 262 

225 Peach Tree with Very Dense New Growth . 263 

226 Greensboro Five Years Old . . . 264 

227 Greensboro Peach, Five Years Old . . 265 

228 Greensboro, Five Years Old, Not Summer 

Pruned 266 

229 Greensboro, Five Years Old. Pruned in August 267 

230 Greensboro, Five Years Old, Pruned in July . 268 

231 Five- Year Belle of Georgia Pruned in Early 

June 269 

232 Five-Year Belle of Georgia Not Summer- 

Pruned 270 

233 Greensboro Tree, Seven Years Old, Not Sum- 

mer Pruned ...... 271 

234 Fourteen-Year Greensboro Summer-Pruned . 272 

235 New Growth on Top-Worked Apple . . 275 

236 One Season's Growth on Top- Worked Apple . 276 

237 New Growth at End of Second Season on Top- 

Worked Apple Tree . . . .277 

238 Red Raspberry Canes Before Pruning . . 280 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS XXlll 

Fig. Page 

230 Red Raspberry Canes After Pruning . . 281 

240 Bramble Canes in Position for Covering with 

Earth for the Winter . . . .282 

241 Red Raspberry Cane Improperly Pruned . 283 

242 Black Raspberry Before Pruning . . , 284 

243 Black Raspberry After Pruning . . . 285 

244 Loganberry Plants with Fruiting Canes Sup- 

ported on Wire Trellis .... 286 

245 Blackberry Canes Before Pruning . . 287 

246 Blackberry Canes After Pruning . . . 288 

247 Styles of Bramble Cane Supports . . .289 

248 Popular Styles of Blackberry Training . . 290 

249 Blackberry Cane and Main Branch . . 291 

250 Unpruned Currant Planted One Year . . 292 

251 One- Year Planted Currant, Pruned Same as 

Fig. 250 292 

252 Gooseberry Before Pruning . . . 293 

253 Gooseberry After Pruning .... 294 

254 Vines Growing in Vineyard the First Year . 295 

255 Grapevine Showing Method of Pruning Roots 

Ready for Planting . . . .296 

256 Rotundifolia (Muscadine) .... 297 

257 Unit of Short Pruning .... 298 

258 Unit of Long Pruning of Grapevine . . 299 

259 Vines Headed Back for Various Systems of 

Pruning 300 

260 Pruned and Unpruned Vine at Various Stages 

of the Renewal System .... 301 

261 Umbrella Trellis 302 

262 Fan System, Vine at Various Ages . . 303 

263 Wire Hook for Holding Vine to Trellis . . 304 

264 Post and Stake Methods of Grape Training . 305 

265 Head Pruning: Fan-Shaped Head, Fruit 

Canes Tied to Horizontal Trellis . . 306 

266 Diagram of Ordinary Trellis . . . 307 



XXIV LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 

t ig. Page 

267 Recurving the Canes as in the Fan System 

Usually Tends to Promote Fruitfulness . 308 

268 Unpruned Vine Trained According to the Fan 

System 311 

269 The Kniffin System. Before Pruning Grapevine 314 

270 The Kniffin System of Training the Vine 

Shown in Fig. 271 315 

271 End of Munson Row 317 

272 Munson System of Training, Vine Unpruned . 318 

273 Munson System of Grape Training . . 319 

274 Pruned and Unpruned Vine, "Umbrella" 

Kniffin System ..... 321 

275 Various Methods of Vine Pruning Popular in 

New York 322 

276 Vine in Its Fourth Year .... 325 

277 Hudson Horizontal System . . . 326 

278 Caywood System of Grape Training . . 327 

279 Parrales System of Training Vines . . 328 

280 Muscadine (Rotundifolia) Grapevine . . 329 

281 Cross-Wire System Showing Pruned Vine . 330 

282 Sultanina Vine Showing Efifect of Tying Fruit 

Canes in Vertical Position . . . 333 

283 Rooted Vine Pruned . . . .336 

284 Treatment of an Average Vine During Second ^ 

Season ....... 338 

285 Grape Spur 340 

286 Three- Year-Old Vines After Pruning . . 342 

287 Grapevines of Various Ages . . . 343 

288 Forms of Grapevine Head Training . . 345 

289 Treatment of Average Vine in Third Season or 

Vigorous One in Second .... 347 

290 Forms of Head Pruning of Grapes . . 349 

291 Horse Chestnut Co-Terminal Bloom Bud Ex- 

panding ...... 356 

292 Shade Tree Headed Too Low . . .357 

293 Huge Wound Well Made . . . .358 



LIST OF ILLUSTKATIONS 



XXV 



Fig. Page 

29-i How to Force Peach Buds to Determine Their 

Condition ...... 35!) 

295 Golden Bell— Forsythia . . . .360 

296 Co-Terminal Method of Bloom Bearing — 

Weigelia ...... 361 

297 Red Bud 362 

298 Dwarf Fruit Trees Artistically Handled in 

Amateur Garden ..... 372 

299 Dwarf Pear Trees Trained in Simple Way . 374 

300 Peach and Pear Trees Trained to Wire Trellis 376 

301 Treated Injuries Normally Heal . . . 382 

302 Mutilated to Lay a Curb .... 383 

303 Cement Fillings and Guy Chain Attachment . 385 

304 Good Healing Over Properly Placed Bolt Head 387 

305 Long Cavities Excavated Through Several 

Openings ...... 388 

306 Excavated, Bolted and Cemented Cavities . 390 

307 How Not to Cover a Cavity with Concrete . 392 

308 Cement Filling Types and Successive Steps . 393 

309 Proper Method of Fastening Guy Chains and 

Bolts . . . . '. . .395 

310 Isn't This Ghastly? 397 

311 Roping a Tree Preparatory to Bolting . . 398 

312 Students at Work in Tree Surgery . . 399 

313 Methods of Fastening Wires to Trees . . 404 

314 Neglected Tree Hard to Spray and Harvest . 405 

315 Old Peach Tree Before Rejuvenation . . 406 

316 Old Peach After Cutting Back Severely . . 407 

317 Old Peach Tree Rejuvenated . . .407 

318 Orchard Before Renewal or Renovation . . 408 

319 Caught Red Handed ! 409 

320 Trees After Cutting ..... 410 

321 First Season's Growth After Pruning . . 411 

322 Isolated Apple Tree Before Pruning . . 412 

323 Isolated Apple Tree After Being Pruned . 413 

324 Same Tree as in Fig. 323 the Summer After . 414 



CHAPTER I 
INTRODUCTION 

1. Pruning defined. — Pruning is the horticultural 
process of cutting off excess or undesirable living, 
dying or dead branches, twigs, roots or other plant parts, 
especially of fruit trees, vines and shrubs, to benefit the 
parts that remain. It naturally divides into three classes, 
dependent upon the aim of the pruner; namely: 1, prun- 
ing for profit, as in the case of fruit trees and bushes, the 
object being to secure finer or more specimens ; 2, pruning 
for ornament, in which case the form of the specimen is 
altered for a real or a fancied improvement ; 3, pruning to 
save the life of the specimen — repair pruning or tree 
surgery, as it is today popularly called. In the present 
volume the main object is pruning for profit, but the 
principles and the practice underlying the other two 
classes are discussed, so the reader may have a good gen- 
eral or working knowledge of each. 

The practice, which is as old as human history, is re- 
ferred to specificall}' in Leviticus (xxv, 3, 4), in which 
the children of Israel are told to prune their vineyards and 
gather the fruit during six years, but in the seventh year 
to let the vines go unpruned. In five other passages in 
the old Testament figurative reference is also made to 
pruning and "pruning hooks." In spite of the ancient 
origin of the practices and the efiforts of many investi- 
gators during the intervening centuries, we have by no 
means reached the limit of knowledge, but can claim to 
have discovered and demonstrated only a few important 
principles and useful practices. These are, however, 
understood by comparatively few of the people who grow 
plants, and even by many of the self-called pruning ex- 

1 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



perts, as evidenced by the ill efifects observed in countless 
fruit and shade trees and illustrated by many of the half- 
tones show^n in this volume. 




FIG. 1— RENOVATING AN OLD, NEGLECTED APPLE TREE 
Notice the upright growths which started as water sprouts, but which have de- 
veloped into fruiting branches with many short and stubby fruit spurs. 

Pruning demands knowledge of plant physiology. Un- 
less the pruner has at least a working knowledge of how 
plants grow he will be unable to prune intelligently to 
secure desired results. On the contrary, he may, and 
probably will, do far more immediate or ultimate harm 
than good. Simply to top off limbs with an ax (Fig. 61) 
or improperly to remove others with a saw (Fig. 201) is 
not pruning, but usually a species of tree butchery or 
vivisection ; for the tree is almost sure to suffer and 
sooner or later die from the effects. Again, without hav- 
ing a definite, desired end and intelligently working within 
the scope of the underlying physiological principles, the 
specimen treated may develop nothing but disease, death, 



INTRODUCTION 



decay and disappointment. Therefore, a sketch of plant 
physiology as it bears upon pruning is given so the reader 
may better understand the reasons for the pruning prin- 
ciples and practices which follow in subsequent chapters. 

2. Pruning systems and ideals. — With every kind of 
fruit, even the strawberry, there are various systems and 
ideals of pruning and training. These, so far as the 
woody fruit plants are 
concerned, differ 
mainly in the form 
which it is designed to 
give the plant and in 
the management of the 
annual growths. Some 
differences are due to 
variations among the 
varieties or species, 
others to the aims 
sought, still others to 
the environmental con- 
ditions or the fashion 
of the locality, and 
many are merely a 
matter of the grower's 
whim or caprice 
(Chapter XVII). Un- 
questionably the best 
system is that which is 
most nearly and readily 
adapted to the condi- 
tions in the individual 
plantation. Whatever the system, unless it considers 
the nature of the plant to be pruned, it is faulty, to say 
the least. 

In no branch of horticultural work is it more important 
for the operator to have a clear mental picture or ideal 




FIG. 2— WRONGLY CUT LIMB WITH 
DECAY HOLE 

The dog has chased a squirrel up in the tree 
and has jumped up to his present position. 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



for which to strive as in pruning. Fruit plants are so 
open to accidents of cultivation, storm, disease and insect 
attack that it is often impossible to secure, much less 
maintain, an absolutely ideal specimen, yet the ideal fruit 
plant, each for its variety or species, must be held tena- 
ciously in the pruner's mind, or 
his mechanical skill w^ill count 
for naught, and the plants he 
prunes v^ill necessarily be un- 
even in appearance, develop- 
ment, prolificacy or some other 
important point or points. 
With a clear ideal constantly 
held while at work he may 
constantly approach even ap- 
proximate realization of his de- 
sires, and will be able to 
counteract undesirable ten- 
dencies and to direct the ener- 
gies of the plant in the right 
direction. With no plants is 
this more important than with 
voung ones. This fact is well 
illustrated by many popular 
proverbs ; for instance, "As 
the twig is bent, so the tree in- 
clines." 

3. Defective pruning may result in one or more of four 
general classes of undesirable ways: 1. The average 
annual crop may be small because of insufficient fruit 
buds, delayed bearing, irregularity of development, or 
imperfect utilization of vigor. 2. The quality of the fruit 
may be inferior because of over-bearing, especially of 
weak plants, irregular distribution of the fruit, and con- 
sequently more or less irregular ripening and injurious 
contact of the fruits with each other, with twigs, branches 




FIG. 3— TREE TOO HIGH- 
HEADED 

This man is 5 feet 10 inches 
tall. He is reaching over 7 feet. 
Note also that branches start 
mainly from one point — unde- 
sirable. 



INTRODIC riON 



of the plants bearing them, with the soil or other objects. 
8. Shortened life of the plants because of pruning and 
other wounds, growth of water sprouts and suckers, or 
to occasional or periodical over-bearing. 4. Excessive 
cost of plantation maintenance — tillage practices, prun- 
ing and thinning, pest control or harvesting and grading. 




FIG. '. — FIRST CROP OF APPLES AFTER RENOVATION UF OLD TREES 



CHAPTER IT 

PLANT PHYSIOLOGY AS RELATED TO 
PRUNING 




4. Plant cells and their functions. — Knowledge of the 
"living machinery" upon which fruit and ornamental 
plant growers depend for profit or beauty depends pri- 
marily upon knowledge of the minute structure and the 
functions of plant cells. It is not necessary in the present 
discussion, however, to go into the 
matter as deeply as does the plant 
physiologist, even though in prac- 
tically all physiological processes 
plant cells form "the important sub- 
stratum of all vital activity." 

5. Cell. — "One of the structural 
elements of living bodies, by which 
the multiplication of growth is 
affected. In plants the cell usually 
appears as a closed sac surrounded 
by a firm wall of cellulose and con- 
taining the essential element, proto- 
plasm, and usually a nucleus, the active agent in cell- 
division" (Crozier). 

6. Protoplasm. — "The viscid, contractile, semi-liquid, 
more or less granular substance that forms the principal 
portion of an animal or vegetable cell" (Standard Dic- 
tionary). "The physical basis of life" (Huxley). 

7. The water supply has much to do with the activities 
of protoplasm and cells and the organisms which these 
compose. Unquestionably it more definitely sets the 
bounds of plant growth as to habitats, localities and re- 
gions than does any other environmental, physical factor; 
for, unless the plant can secure a sufficient and practically 

6 



FIG. 5 
MERISTEMATIC CELL 
FROM ROOT TIP OF 
MAIZE 



PLANT PHYSIOLOGV AS RELATED TO PRUNING 




constant supply of water during- its growing season, the 
soil, however rich in plant food, might as well be sterile. 
Succulent plants and plant tissues in active growth con- 
tain relatively little fiber, mineral and other solid material, 
but 75 per cent or more of water. 
Thick-walled, protective and woody 
tissues contain relatively less, as 
may also the succulent parts during 
periods of drouths. 

8. Dual function of water. — Water 
acts in the double capacity of (1) a 
plant food solvent and transporting 
agent, and (2) a crude plant food 
itself, as in the manufacture of 
starches, sugars, cellulose, etc. Dur- 
ing the growing period, therefore, 
ordinary plants must be in constant 
touch with water in greater or lesser 
supply. Their forms, functions and 
development are also afifected by the 
volume, the distribution and the min- 
eral content of the available water. 

Water maintains rigidity in succulent plants and in 
those growing parts whose cells have not become firm 
enough to maintain their normal form when the supply 
of water becomes reduced. This function produces what 
is termed hydrostatic rigidity, since it enables succulent 
plants to support considerable weights of branches and 
other plant parts. Should the water supply become re- 
duced, such plants" Vv^ould droop or wilt more or less seri- 
ously. Hence, ample water is a prime requisite of suc- 
cessful development. The supply may be reduced by 
other means than simply lack of water in the soil. 

"Booth reports an instance in which peaches on Marianna plum 
stocks grew fairly well for two years, though from the start the 
4ieaches grew more rapidly than the plums, so the peach trunks were 
at two years twice as large at the union as below. During the 
second season the weather was very hot and dry, and the peach trees, 



FIG. 6 

CHLORENCHYMA CELL 

SHOWING STARCH 

GRAINS AND 

CHLOROPLASTS 



8 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 

after wilting for several days, but reviving during the night, finally 
dried out and died, evidently because sufficient moisture was not 
furnished by the slow-growing Marianna roots to meet the demand 
from the peach leaves during a period of excessive transpiration." * 

9. Water is absorbed by the root system of the great 
majority of higher plants, especially those used in agri- 
culture and horticulture. This system is of various forms, 
textures and distributions in the soil, but these differences 
are not necessarily linked with noticeable differences in 
the quantities of available water. Root systems may be 
divided into two general classes, namely : (1) The tap- 
root style, which penetrates the soil more or less vertically 
downward (parsnip, hickory), with branch roots de- 
veloped at irregular intervals ; (2) the fibrous-root style, 
which reveals little, if any, main root axis, but has many 
more or less uniformly sized small roots starting from 
near the base of the stem (wheat, currant). 

10. Root hairs and their function. — Roots and rootlets, 
no matter how minutely they divide, are both the hold- 
fast organs whereby plants maintain their positions in the 
soil, and the pipe lines whereby the upper parts of plants 
are supplied with water taken from the soil. Neverthe- 
less they are of secondary importance to the root hairs 
with respect to the water supply. The root hairs are 
single cells which push out from the epidermis of rootlets, 
not at the immediate and elongating tip, but just in the 
rear of this part, an area that has ceased to extend, but 
has not developed thick or hard-walled epidermal cells. 
Their function is to secure water and crude plant food — 
mainly of a mineral nature — from the soil. Always they 
occupy positions within a few inches of the extreme tips 
of the rootlets. As the tips push forward new root hairs 
are formed in front of the older ones and the oldest dis- 
appear, to be replaced by thicker-walled tissues incapable 
of absorbing either water or mineral matter from the soil. 
Root hairs can be easily studied by sprouting seeds and 



*Kains, Plant Propagation, Greenhouse and Nursery Practice, Page 189. 



PLANT PHYSIOLOGY AS RELATED TO PRUNING V 

allowing the seedlings to grow a few days between sheets 
of white blotting paper. When so grown they are more 
or less straight, but when grown in the soil they are 
much contorted because of the contact of soil particles. 
11. Root hairs are usually most numerous on plants 
growing in soil that is dry, and least in that which is 
saturated with water. Also, when the water supply de- 



FIG. 7— ROOT 

HAIR GREATLY 

MAGNIFIED 




FIG. 8— ROOT TIP MUCH 

MAGNIFIED 

a, epidermis; b, cortex; c, ple- 

rome; d, root cap. 



minishes they become more numerous ; and when it be- 
comes wet, less abundant. Plants grown in wet soil and 
then transplanted to soil much drier will suffer severely 
unless watered. Often they will die because they cannot 
develop root hairs fast enough to supply the loss of mois- 
ture by transpiration from the leaves. 

This finds a specially important application in the prun- 
ing of nursery stock at transplanting time; the tops of 
the plants must be cut back to balance the unavoidable 
loss of roots due to digging. (Chapter IX.) It may be 
proved very simply by the following experiment : Sow 
some cabbage or lettuce seeds in a flat filled with soil of 
uniform quality. When the plants have two or three 
leaves and are large enough to prick out, divide the most 



10 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



uniform ones into three groups and transplant in flats 
filled with soil also of uniform quality. Keep the plants 
of one set very moist, those in another set very dry and 
those in the third set moderately moist. In three or four 
weeks transplant the plants to the open ground, treating 

those of each lot in 
three ways, thus : 
Transplant some with 
the least possible loss 
of any parts, others 
after removing 75 per 
cent of the leaf sur- 
face and the third lot 
after the destruction 
of about half the root 
and the leaf area. If 
the open ground con- 
ditions are fairly uni- 
form, it will usually 
be found that the 
plants kept wet in the 
flat will sufifer most, 
those kept dry least, 
and those deprived of 
considerable leaf sur- 
face in each lot will 
sufifer less than those 
from which none of the leaf area is removed. Don't 
BELIEVE this statement simply because it is printed in 
this book. Try it. Prove it. Then you will understand 
why nursery stock should have the tops cut back to bal- 
ance the loss of root digging. 

12. The extent of the root system is usually greater in 
agricultural plants than that of the trunk, branches and 
leaves combined. Thus the plants are able to draw 
water from an enormous area of soil particles, propor- 




FIG. 9— ROOTLET SEEN IN CROSS SECTION 

a, xylem and phloem; b, central cylinder; c, 

endodermis; d, cortex; e, root hairs. 



PLANT PHYSIOLOGY AS RELATED TO PRUNING 



11 



tionately the greater as the fineness of the particles and 
the quantity of organic matter in the soil increase. An idea 
of the extent of the root systems of cultivated plants 
may be gained from the statement that a full-grown sun- 
flower will fill almost a full cubic yard of soil with its 
root system. Such an enormous water-absorbing area is 
necessary because other 
parts of the plant (in agri- 
cultural plants, at least,) 
are not fitted or at best are 
poorly fitted for absorbing 
water. 

Even leaves which are 
supposed to absorb water 
when wilted by rain and 
dew are much less able to 
do this than is popularly 
supposed. Yes, leaves 
wilted by hot weather 
quickly become turgid after 
a shower, but this is far less 
due to the water on sur- 
faces than to the reduction 
of transpiration in the 
cooler, moister air and to 
the increased supply of 
water which the roots can 
draw upon. Leaves of some 
plants, however, are able to 
take up water much more 
readily than others, but 
these are such as do not 
concern the subject of 
pruning. 

13. Osmosis and diffusion of water account for passage 
of water from the soil through the root hairs and upward 




FIG. 10— HOW NURSERY TREES 
ARE DUG 
Dotted line shows diagrammatically 
where roots are cut; a, what the pur- 
chaser gets; b, what is left in the soil. 



PLANT PHYSIOLOGY AS RELATED TO PRUNING 13 

in plants. The movements are due to the tendency of 
liquids of different densities to equalize, the weaker mov- 
ing toward and diluting the stronger, and vice versa. Root 
hairs contain cell sap, which, besides protoplasm, con- 
tains also usually a stronger solution of salts than does 
the soil water. Hence the flow of water is from the soil 
through the root-hair wall and from the root hairs to 
other cells more and more remote from the water-absorb- 
ing surfaces — the interior cells of the roots, the stems, 
the leaves, etc. 

The effect of this flow or hydrostatic pressure, called 
turgor, is the principal cause of normal stiffness of succu- 
lent vegetative parts of plants. Its opposite effect (wilt- 
ing or plasmolysis) may be due to lack of sufficient water 
to maintain turgor or to a soil water solution stronger 
than that in the plant tissues, the result in this latter 
case being the passage of water from the plant into the 
soil water. So far as pruning is concerned, the strength 
of the solution is of minor importance, but unless there 
is an inflow of water from the soil to the roots sufficient 
to maintain transpiration, wilting will be a more or less 
serious phenomenon, in some cases even resulting in 
death. 

14. Root or sap pressure is the term given to the os- 
motic power of the roots. It may be observed when 
transpiration is not too rapid to offset its effects. The 
most common phenomenon which proves this sap pres- 
sure is the so-called "bleeding" of grapevines, maples, 
box elders, birches and other plants cut in spring about 
the time that growth normally starts. If the cutting is 
done earlier the adjacent cells become dry and shriveled 
so the sap cannot exude. In other cases the wounded 
surfaces may develop corky layers, may become clogged 
with glutinous or solid material, or special growths 
(tyloses) which come from adjacent cells and clog those 
cells or tubes from which the major part of the bleeding 



14 PRINCIPLES AXD PRACTICE OF PRUNING 

occurs. It may be said, parenthetically, that this bleeding 
may produce ill effects instanced as follows : 

15. Vine bleeding. — C. C. Newman has demonstrated 
the evil effect of late spring pruning of muscadine grape- 
vines.* 

Two vines growing side by side were pruned, one November 15 
and the other February 15. The vine pruned in November did not 
bleed at all as the spring advanced and produced a wonderful crop 
of fine fruit. The vine pruned in February began to bleed as soon 
as the weather turned warm, slowly at first, but bleeding more 
freely as the spring advanced. Drops of sap could be seen steadily 
dripping from the end of each vine that had been cut. The vine 
pruned in February was 10 days later in putting out leaves than the 
one pruned in November. The growth was very feeble and it set 
very little fruit, most of the canes dying during the summer. 

To form some idea as to the amount of sap that would flow from 
a vine that had been pruned too late in the season, a third vine was 
pruned in November, and on March 20 one cane, ^ inch in di- 
ameter, was cut on the same vine and a rubber tube fastened over 
it so as to conduct the sap to a large glass jug, the mouth of which 
was closed with a cork, through which the rubber tube passed. The 
vine began to bleed freely from the cane cut March 20, but the canes 
cut in November did not bleed at all. A careful record was kept 
of the sap collected, and in four weeks from the time the cane began 
to bleed, 23 pounds of sap had been collected from this one cane. 
The loss of sap through this cane affected the entire vine, and its 
growth was checked considerably. 

16. Transpiration is the passage into the air of water 
in vapor form from leaves and other green and growing 
parts of plants. Thus a very great part of the water ab- 
sorbed by the root hairs finds its way into the air. Cer- 
tain plants (eucalyptus trees), because of their ability to 
transpire immense quantities of water, are used to re- 
move excess water from soils that cannot readily be 
drained in any other way. As instances among agricul- 
tural plants it may be mentioned that experiments with a 
little tree have shown that (proportionately) an apple tree 
30 years old would probably transpire 250 pounds of 
water a day, or about 20 tons during the growing season. 
At this rate an apple orchard with trees set 40 x 40 feet — ■ 

• S. C. Bulletin 132, Page 7. 




PLANT PHYSIOLOGY AS RELATED TO PRUNING 15 

27 trees to the acre — would transpire 540 tons in a season ! 
Such facts, estimations and deductions as these indicate 
the importance of water conservation in trees and shrubs 
by pruning and in the soil by cultural practices. 

17. The transpiration apparatus. — Water escapes from 
plant tissue into the air mainly through minute openings 
(stomata) in the epidermis of 
leaves and growing shoots. 
Lenticels in the bark of older 
shoots and branches perform a 
similar function. Some water 
may also escape more or less di- 
rectly through the epidermis of 
delicate and very young leaves 
and shoots before the cutiniza- p,^ ,2-ep.dermal cells 
tion of this epidermis. and stomata from a leaf 

18. Stomata (singular, stoma). — "Openings in the epi- 
dermis of plants for the admission of air and the libera- 
tion of water; breathing pore" (Crozier). 

19. How stomata operate. — Stomata are doors through 
the epidermis to the chambers and contorted corridors 
which constitute the aerating, intercellular spaces of leaf 
and other green tissue. They open and close according 
to the intricate action of growth factors, which operate 
mostly in the tissues, though external factors — light, tem- 
perature, motion and humidity of the air, water content 
of the soil, etc. — may also operate to a greater or lesser ex- 
tent. Since the protoplasm in every cell of the transpir- 
ing tissue is rich in water, and since every cell borders an 
intercellular space, the air in the intercellular parts be- 
comes heavy with water vapor. When the stomata are 
open and the external air conditions favor it, the outward 
passage of this water-saturated air is rapid. Plants in 
nature check transpiration in many ways, such as de- 
velopment of hairs or wax on their cuticles, by thickened 
cuticles, placing their stomata in cavities, reducing the 



16 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 

number of stomata in given areas, developing water-hold- 
ing tissues, reducing the amount of surface exposed to 
the air, and so on. Artificially, transpiration may be re- 
duced by preventing the development of excessive leaf 
area, as when nitrogenous plant food is withheld, and by 
pruning off unnecessary branches and twigs and even in- 
dividual leaves. 

Instances of water loss effects during dry spells are the 
wilting and drying up of certain herbaceous annuals, the 
premature defoliation of deciduous perennials, the partial 
or total defoliation of fruit trees followed by the develop- 
ment of new growth subsequent to a wet spell in early 
autumn. Such instances indicate that short water supply 
during the growing season tends to maturity of all parts, 
especially fruits and seeds, the former of which are often 
altered in texture and even chemical composition. 

20. Transportation of water and plant food. — In all 

plants with which this volume deals there are "vessels" 
or conduits which greatly facilitate the transpiration of 
liquids. These are of two classes, (1) Some of these, 
the large and numerous xylem vessels (25) on the inner 
side of the cambium, lead from the water-absorbing areas 
to the transpiring areas. Through them the greater part 
of the copious "transpiration stream" ascends. From 
them also more or less water diffuses to cells which need 
it, and which have enough tension to draw it. This 
stream also carries mineral nutrients from part to part 
upward. (2) Other of these vessels (sieve tubes), smaller 
ones than those just mentioned, are outside the cambium. 
They lead from the chlorophyll-containing parts of the 
water-transpiring areas to all regions of the plant where 
growth and food storage are taking place and pass by 
diffusion through the cell walls where such activities are 
occurring. These smaller conduits carry the "elaborated" 
plant foods made from water and carbon dioxide in the 
process of photosynthesis (29). 



PLANT PHYSIOLOGY AS RELATED TO PRUNING 



17 



In the first case the sap will continue to ascend for a 
considerable time after the stem has been girdled ; in the 
second the stem will increase considerably in girth, the 
process requiring several weeks or months, dependent 
upon the kind of plant, the size of the stem and other 
factors. The following instances will prove interesting 
at this oint. 

d c b 

^r ^ — 




FIG. 13— THREE SECTIONS OF OAK BRANCH SHOWING VARIOUS TISSUES 
Upper surface, cross r.ection; front face (from / to middle) longitudinal section; 
extreme left, tangential section showing ends of medullary rays; left center, cross 
section showing medullary ray; a, cortex; h, bast; c, cambium; d, spring-formed 
wood; e, autumn-formed wood of previous year; /, lenticel. 

21. Tenacity of life in trees.— The fact that the course of the 
crude sap in exogenous plants is upward through the sap-wood is 
well illustrated by the tenacity of life in trees that have been de- 
prived of their bark completely around their trunks to considerable 
heights. For instance, trees are often girdled by mice and rabbits 
to a height of several inches or even a foot, so that it is thought 
necessary to resort to bridge or repair grafting (128) to help the 
healing process. More remarkable, however, is the instance re- 
corded by I. Simpson in the Gardeners' Chronicle — the peeling of 
standing oaks to the height of 20 to 40 feet and the subsequent leaf- 
ing out of these trees and the continuance of these leaves even to 
the end of the season. 



18 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 

The reasons for the peeling practice are that timber merchants 
beUeve timber so peeled keeps in better condition than when peeled 
after felling. It costs much more to peel the trees standing than 
felled. Peeling begins as soon as the sap begins to rise, and is 
continued till the trees come into leaf, when the bark cannot be de- 
tached. Many of the trees are completely stripped of their bark 
from bottom to top, except the topmost branches, yet large un- 
barked tops continue to swell their buds and come into full leaf, 
while the peeled trunks up to the heads are barkless and apparently 
as dry as a board for perhaps 20 to 40 feet below. On some of the 
trees the leaves fade before the summer is over, but on others they 
continue till the end of the season. 

Cases similar to these came under the writer's observation at the 
close of the Spanish-American war, when 450 U. S. army mules 
were turned loose at Washington on the "Potomac Flats," where 
they stripped the bark as high as they could reach from about 100 
Carolina poplars. The trees continued green till the close of the 
season, but, with a few notable exceptions, failed to leaf out the 
following spring. These exceptions all had retained strips of un- 
injured bark from base to branches in positions beyond the reach 
of the mules so that food elaborated by the leaves could return to 
the roots and thus maintain the life of the trees. 

In the orchard of the author's boyhood an Onondaga pear tree 
through some accident became "barked" from the ground to the 
first branches and for fully three-fourths of its girth, yet it bore 
excellent fruit for many years thereafter. 

22. The reason why. — In commenting on such cases as these A. C. 
Forbes in a later issue of the Gardeners' Chronicle says in sub- 
stance : The partial development of the annual shoots in trees de- 
prived of their bark is only one of several interesting facts to be 
seen in trees in a more or less unnatural condition. The growth of 
the shoots on the barked trees is in no way more remarkable than 
it would be had the bark remained on. 

The generally accepted view of tree growth is that the watery 
sap rises through the outer rings of the stem into the leaves, there 
becomes greatly changed, and passes from the leaves through special 
vessels in the bast or inner bark downward to the cambium and 
other growing and storage tissues. The removal of the bark, there- 
fore, if not carried too far, does not interfere directly with the 
growth and support of the leaves but prevents the food which they 
prepare being put to its proper use by the destruction of the down- 
ward conducting channels and the cambium layer. The continuation 
of growth in the annual shoots under such circumstances depends 
upon the capability of the stem to retain its water-conducting power, 
and the amount of reserve material contained in the roots, which are 
thus enabled to carry on their absorptive functions. 

In the case of trees barked up to their smallest branches and 
twigs, the water-conducting power of the upper parts of the stem 



PLANT PIIVSIOI.OGV AS RELATED TO PRUNING 



19 



is soon lost, or reduced Itelow the needs of the leaves, owing to 
outer influences, such as sun and wind carrying ofif most of the sap 
by evaporation before it reaches the grow- 
ing shoots. Where large branches are ringed 
at their bases, however, so that at least 
a part of the bark of the crown remains 
connected with the roots, their growth 
proceeds for many years with little or no 
decrease of vigor or health and ceases 
only when the decay of the barked portion 
cuts off the supply of sap. 

The growth of the roots of trees 
barked at the surface of the ground usu- 
ally continues for one or two years after 
barking, though whether this is due en- 
tirely to the store of reserve materials in 
the fleshy part of the cortical tissue, or 
partly to root grafting from neighboring 
trees, it is difficult to say. 

According to some authorities, the rise 
of sap is confined to one or two-year-old 
rings in certain species, while in others as 
many as five or six are concerned in the 
business. In the latter the sap ascent 
would probably be continued for several 
years longer than in the former, — hile the 
resistance offered by the wood to decay 
would also exercise its influence. In resi- 
nous conifers the saturation of the wood 
on the outside of the barked stem with 
resin, which occurs when the cells and 
cell-walls lose their water, acts as a pro- 
tection against the cracking and drying of 
the stem by atmospheric conditions, and 
its infection by fungi. 

23. Felled trees develop sprouts. — An- 
other interesting feature of the vitality of 
woody tissue is the throwing out of ad- 
ventitious shoots or "water-branches" by 
the tree trunks felled in winter and left 
lying with the bark on. Elm, oak, poplar, 
willow, etc., on damp ground, continue 
growing in this w^ay for two or three 
years, and the dwarf shoots on young 
larch stems and branches left on the 
ground also develop and keep green for a 
month or two. Of course such growths 
are dependent entirely upon the reserve 




FIG. 



14— CROSS SECTION 
OF STEM 
This microphotograph 
shows how the stem of a 
tulip tree (Liriodendron tu- 
lipifera) looks. Notice the 
arcs of the annular rings, the 
spoke-like medullary rays, 
the bark (below) and the pith 
(above). This stem is four 
years old. 



20 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 

materials in the sap-wood and the inner bark. The increase in the 
wood ring-, which accompanies them, is almost nil. These growths, 
however, are of economic importance, since they are the means of 
removing the starchy compounds from the timber — compounds which 
indirectly do much to hasten decay. It may 1)e that the reputation 
of winter-felled timber is partly due to this fact. 

24. "Phloem, that portion of a fibro-vasciilar bundle in 
plants containing the bast and sieve tissue. In exogens 
It is ^always sharply defined from the remaining portion 
l(xyl'em, 25) by a layer of cambium. The inner bark is 
Berif ed from the phloem, the wood from the xylem. The 
Elaborated plant food from the leaves passes dow^n and 
is distributed by the phloem. 

!' 25. "Xylem, or woody portion of a fibro-vascular 
bundle which contains the larger continuous air-holding 
vessels and the walls of whose cells arc often thickened 
and lignified. The xylem is separated from the phloem 
by the cambium, when there is any, atid it usually oc- 
cupies the side of the bundle toward the center of the 
stem. Water with the mineral compounds in solution 
passes up through the xylem to the leaves." * 

26. Fibro-vascular bundles. — The conducting tissue 
discussed above is arranged in fibro-vascular bundles. 
In monocotyledonous plants (sorghum, corn) these bundles 
are distributed irregularly through softer tissue (paren- 
chyma). Because of this irregular distribution, and also 
because there is no cambium within the bundles, mono- 
cotyledonous plants usually have neither true bark, cambium 
rings nor annual rings of wood. In dicotyledonous plants, 
on the other hand, the fibro-vascular bundles have a cam- 
bium which separates the xylem from the phloem. In 
dicotyledonous plants, which form a wood-ring, the primary 
tissue of the bundles forms a layer in which the outer 
part contains the phloem and the inner the xylem. Since 
the cambium is between these two sets of tissue, new 
xylem and phloem are developed as growth proceeds; 

* Kains, Plant Propagation, Greenhouse and Nursery Practice, Page 146. 



PLANT PHYSIOLOGY AS RELATED TO PRUNING 



21 



and, as the tissues become old, they gradually cease to 
function in water and food conduction. Thus in trees 
and shrubs the interior tissues serve only to strengthen 
the stems. In other words, the "heart wood" is dead. 

The earliest formed of the vascular bundles are ar- 
ranged in a more or less circular series ; those formed 
later are developed from the cambium between them. 
Ultimately such large numbers of these bundles may be 
formed that in woody and semi-woody dicotyledonous plants 
they may form a cylinder of wood, though the indi- 
vidual bundles may be partially or wholly separated from 
each other by thin plates of wood called medullary rays 




FIG. 15— FIBRO-VASCULAR BUNDLE 
A, cross section, phloem showing sieve tubes, a, companion cell, e, scleren- 
chyma and g, parenchyma, b, xylem, c, showing vessels, d, between the two cam- 
bium, /; B, longitudinal section. Outside cells parenchyma. Letters in A apply to 
various tissues. 

(Fig. 14). Since the cambium in such plants produces 
new xylem on its interior, it is steadily moved annually 
or seasonally farther outward from the center of the 
stem ; since new phloem is developed on the outer side 
of the cambium, both the wood and the bark increase in 
thickness and the stems, as a whole, increase in girth ; 
and since the xylem developed in the early part of the 
season is thinner walled than that produced later when 
growth is not so active, the characteristic annual or 
annular rings so readily seen in cross sections of dicoty- 
ledonous woody plants are formed. 



22 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



27. Leaf venation. — As has been stated, the xylem 
parts of the vascular bundles lead from the absorbing- 
areas of the roots to the transpiring areas, and the phloem 
parts from the transpiring areas to parts where growth 




FIG. 16— CONTRASTING GROWTHS OF MAZZARD CHERRY 
The specimen at the left shows one year's growth in a thicket where the tree 
"pulled" for light. The two lowest branches and a little stub are dead. The 
middle specimen is the upper part of the first, three years old at its base. Note 
how it continued to extend until it reached favorable light, where it developed 
branches. The specimen on the right is as old as the middle piece — ^three years. 
Note how much shorter and how much more branchy it is. It grew in the open 
ground, where it had no competitors except grass for light and air. 



PLANT PHYSIOLOGY AS RELATED TO I'RUNING 



23 



or storage is occurring. It remains only to l)e mentioned 
that each rootlet and each leaf are more or less directly 
connected by vascular bundles in more or less definite 
number, depending upon the species. In leaves these 
bundles constitute the "ribs" or veins vvhich serve both 
as conduits and as stiffeners of the leaves themselves. 

28. Chlorophyll, the green coloring matter of plants, 
is the most intimate link which bindslifetothesun. Itisthe 
laboratory in which is made the earth's supply of organic 
matter, including all fuel. Though sometimes obscured 




£fic/ermis Stoma £or(/erjjarenc/7^ma 

FIG. 17— DIAGRAM OF CUT EDGE OF LEAF 

Note the various tissues. (After Stevens, Plant Anatomy.') 

by other colors, it is characteristic of all higher plants, 
algcX and mosses, but is absent in fungi. Plants contain- 
ing it may grow in partial shade or in the full glare of the 
sun, but never in total darkness. The relation of light to 
chlorophyll is clearly indicated by the sizes and forms 
of the leaf blades, the arrangement of leaves upon their 




FIG. 18— COMPARISON OF GROWTH 
These two apple trees are the same age — three years. The one on the left 
is a seedling which grew in the open ground with no competition but that of the 
grass; the one on the right is a graft sprout which grew in a close thicket, and 
because of lack of light as well as its varietal nature and probably strong root 
power, has "pulled'.' toward the light. Note the difference in number of branches. 



PLANT PHYSIOLOGY AS RELATED TO PRUNING 



25 



branches and the arrangement of the branches (Fig. 20). 
Plants growing alone in the open develop leaves uni- 
formly on all sides (Fig. 20), those growing in groups 
lack leaves where other plants compete with them for 
light (Figs. 18, 22, 23). The same is true of ])ranches and 
twigs in trees. Hence the importance of pruning so as 
to admit ample light to supply leaves on the interior twigs 
and branches of trees and shrubs; for when such parts 
are poorly lighted they cannot function properly. In 
many cases — for instance, interior twigs on young (three 
to five-year-old) peach trees improperly pruned — they die 
for lack of light. 

29. Photosynthesis is the process whereby the chloro- 
phyll is able, in the presence of light, to construct organic 
foods from the crude materials contained in the soil 
water and the air. Though a. 

light, carbon dioxide and 
water are essential, the proc- 
ess is influenced by tempera- 
ture and other factors unnec- 
essary to discuss. The intensity 
and the quality of light bear 
a more or less complex rela- 
tion to food manufacture. 
When the temperature is fa- 
vorable, the capacity of plants 
to produce finished plant food 
is proportional to the in- 
tensity of the light up to the 
limit of the available carbon 
dioxide and water. In sup- 
port of this statement instances may be suggested of 
plants which stand the full glare of the sun and of 
others whose maximum is reached in partial shade. Too 
strong emphasis, however, must not be placed on this 
intensity factor, because increased transpiration of water 




FIG. 19— CROSS SECTION OF A 
LEAF 
Upper and lower epidermis with 
stomata, a; air chambers, b, or inter- 
cellular spaces; cross section of leaf 
vein, c, in the parenchyma or soft, 
thin-ceiled tissue. 



26 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 

may tend to dry the active tissues, close the stomata and 
otherwise reduce photosynthesis. 

It has been estimated that a vigorous Concord grape- 
vine in good vineyard practice may expose to the light a 
leaf surface of 10 to 12 square yards. Such an area has 
been estimated as manufacturing about a pound of or- 
ganic matter in a day during the active growing season. 
From this calculation a hazy idea may be formed of the 
work done by a vineyard or an orchard between, say, 
April and October, and a hint may be gained as to the 
importance of pruning and training so as to enhance the 
process of photosynthesis, especially in fruit-bearing 
plants. 

30. Growth and growth relations. — Though growth and 
growth relations have been touched upon indirectly in 
the previous chapter, it is necessary that certain of their 
phases be discussed separately, because a true conception 
of them is essential in pruning. From the agricultural 
standpoint, growth is measured by yield ; from the stand- 
point of the forester, usually by size or development ; 
from the standpoint of the ornamental horticulturist, by 
beauty of specimen. These ends are all affected by va- 
rious internal and external factors, such as (1) vitality, 
heredity and food supply and (2) environment, moisture, 
temperature, oxygen, character of food and light. 

31. Proof of growth. — Popularly, growth is evidenced 
in flowering plants by increased weight and size, by de- 
velopment from the seedling stage to maturity and the 
quick production of stems, leaves, flowers and fruits. It 
is dependent upon the formation and enlargement of cells 
and may lead to strongly marked changes in both internal 
structure and external form. The most evident of these 
changes are (1) differentiation, due to structural changes 
either within a single cell or a group of cells; and (2) 
extension or increased length, )ften accompanied by 
greater girth. 




FIG. 20— SIDE VIEW OF AN APPLE SEEDLING 

Note how the leaves are arranged on the stem. Each extends outward at a 
different angle from the one above and below it. Thus it takes advantage of its 
opportunity to get light. Note view from above in Fig. 21. 



28 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 

32. The tip of the stem and of the branch in flowering 
plants is the point from which extension takes place. 
Since any wood bud may become the starting point of a 
new branch or stem, this statement is general. Dissection 




FIG. 21— SEEDLING APPLE SEEN FROM ABOVE 
Here the tree shown in Fig. 20 shows how the leaves apparently make an al- 
most perfect rosette. Thus they get the fullest advantage of the light. Note 
the spaces almost opposite each other where it seems as if a leaf were missing. 
These "jogs" were caused by the nearness of other seedlings in the nursery row; 
there was not the same chance to get light as in the other directions. 

has shown that extension is dependent upon no one cell, 
but that a rather indefinite cell area, which constitutes 
the primary meristem, is the originating tissue. Here 
division rapidly takes place, while immediately in the rear 
of the dividing cells is the area of extension. 



PLANT PHYSIOLOGY AS RELATED TO PRUNING 29 

33. Leaf formation takes place immediately in rear of 
the stem apex. In some plants (apple) the leaves occur 
in spiral order, in others opposite (lilac), in still others 
alternately (elm) and so on. Incipiently, they are tiny 
swellings, but soon they flatten and grow more rapidly 
than does the stem apex, over which they curve more or 
less to form a bud. In few trees does this leafy axis con- 
tinue to extend during the growing season. Where ex- 
tension occurs each leaf is left behind in the spiral, the 
whorl or other natural formation as the tip moves 
forward. New points of growth are usually differentiated 
later as buds in the axils of the leaves ; and when the 
leaves fall at the end of the growing season these buds 
become 

34. Resting buds. — In most trees and shrubs, at least 
in temperate and cold climates, the shoot axis terminates 
in late summer or early fall in a bud which is said to re- 
main dormant until the following spring, so also do the 
axillary buds. This dormancy is not total, since there is 
some slight growth activity, except perhaps during the 
coldest weather (54, 55). The resting buds are very 
short leaf axes covered by bud scales (specialized leaves) 
which serv^e as protectors of the more important internal 
parts. While the buds are said in the fall and the winter 
to be resting or dormant, they may have been ready for 
the "rest" as early as July. They do not, however, usually 
appear to be resting until the leaves fall. In spring with the 
return to conditions favorable to growth activity the rest- 
ing buds xapidly unfold, either a leafy shoot (quince, dier- 
villa) a flower (peach, golden bell — Forsythia, Fig. 296), a 
cluster of flowers (cherry, spice biish — Lindcra) or a 
cluster containing both leaves and flowers (apple, thorn — 
Cratcpgus) . 

35. The types of stem extension from resting buds, 

though diverse, may be grouped in two classes, though 
these may present numerous cases of over-lapping. 



30 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 

(1) Rapid extension of resting buds into shoots which 
bear no other parts than those already in the buds them- 
selves. In this group belong many north temperate trees 
and shrubs, among which beech and pine may be taken 
as typical, the former having a segmented, the latter an 
unsegmented shoot. In spring the beech bud gradually 
swells, and at first presents a fairly general extension of 
the internodes. Soon the bud has doubled its original 
length, at which time the method of extension may best 
be noted. Beginning at the basal node, it will be seen 
that each internode in turn becomes successively most 
active, so that the terminal internodes are the last to 
extend rapidly. The pine shows a similar development 
except that, having an unsegmented stem, the most ac- 
tively extending part moves gradually forward in a more 
uniform manner than in the case of the beech. Apples 
and pears present much the same method as the beech. 

(2) Some trees and shrubs, such as willow and lilac, 
normally develop more leaves than those wintered over 
in the resting bud, so that the total number of nodes and 
internodes at the end of the growing season is larger than 
the numbers represented in the buds. The peach may 
sometimes develop leaves, nodes and internodes in this 
way, though it perhaps generally develops as described 
under class one. This phenomenon is probably more 
common in young trees than in older ones. For instance, 
old trees of the cottonwood or necklace poplar (Populus 
monilifera) may develop no more leaves, nodes and inter- 
nodes, than were contained in the resting bud ; young 
ones may develop three, four or even more times as many. 
From such instances it is concluded that conditions, such 
as age, environment and character of season, may ac- 
count for the differences. 

The secondary growth of shoots, especially of fruit 
trees, must not be confounded with the normal phenomena 
discussed above. Such growth usually occurs during a 



PLANT PHYSIOLOGY AS RELATED TO PRUNING 31 

moist, late summer or early autumn following a more or 
less protracted drouth. It may also be due to excess of 
nitrogenous plant food and an ample water supply in the 
soil. Such growths are usually undesirable because they 
are developed from buds which should continue dormant 
until the following spring and also because they usually 
do not have sufficient time to ripen fully before winter 
sets in. Consequently much of the growths so produced 
must be pruned off, to the greater or lesser loss of wood 
that if grown in normal time would be valuable for fruit 
production or other purpose. 

Hence cultural practices, such as tillage, drainage, fer- 
tilizing, cover and inter-cropping, have a direct bearing 
upon pruning, because these affect more or less definitely 
the production of wood. In many kinds of trees, es- 
pecially apple and pear, leaves appear to be borne in 
clusters on very short twigs called spurs. This phe- 
nomenon is due to the suppression of the internodes and 
the consequent shortening of the axis. Sometimes the 
reverse of this case occurs on a spur, as when a bud, which 
might be expected to continue the slow extension of a 
spur, suddenly elongates into a slender twig such as 
shown in Fig. 36. 

36. The relation of leaves to light intensity is one of 
the most commonly observed of plant growth phenomena. 
Everyone who has had anything to do with plants, es- 
pecially those grown in dwellings, knows that leaves and 
leafy shoots "turn toward the light." This is the more 
marked as the room is poorly illuminated ; the plant parts 
capable of doing so soon bend toward the window or other 
light source. Similar effects may be seen in the open. 
The explanation for this phenomenon is that the parts 
which thus change position do so in order that the 
chlorophyll may secure the maximum illumination and 
thus function to best advantage. 

Broad-leaved plants generally form a more or less com- 
plete mosaic of green. Especially good examples of this 



32 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



are Boston ivy and grapevines ; the leaves completely hide 
the flowers, fruit, woody parts and the supports. Among 
trees, Norway and sugar maples, especially the former, 
are very striking because, when, say, 30 or more years 
old uninjured specimens growing by themselves show a 
perfect envelope of leaves covering bare branches and 
trunk beneath. In neglected fruit trees similar though 
much less marked development may be observed. 

To carry the illustration and the lesson it teaches still 
further, the same effects may be noted in trees and shrubs 
that grow in close groups, whether in a state of nature 
or in a plantation. This has two very striking applica- 
tions, one in the forest, the other in the fruit plantation. 




FIG. 22— "LEGGY" PEACH TREES 

Adequate spacing and judicious pruning would have ihade these more stocky. They 

are far too tall and too likely to be injured by wind. 

Trees which grow close together in the forest produce 
so much shade that their lower branches, being deprived 
of light, die and ultimately fall off, and only the top? 



PLANT PHYSIOLOGY AS RELATED TO PRUNING 33 

continue leafy. (Figs. 25, 26, 27.) The result is the long, 
bare trunks which characterize forest trees, whereas the 
same species growing in the open would have short, 
branchy trunks. From the lumberman's point of view, 
the former are the more desirable, but they arc produced 
at too great a risk of decay by means of fungi and bac- 
teria, which may enter through decaying stubs of limbs. 
In the other striking application, namely, the fruit planta- 
tion, similar results follow the too close 

37. Spacing of trees and shrubs. — Just as in the forest, 
trees planted too closely together grow inordinately tall. 
(Fig. 25, 27.) Their lower twigs and limbs die because 
improperly lighted, and the orchardist is put to serious 
expense in pruning, spraying, thinning and harvesting. 
Nowhere is this so conspicuous as in neglected, closely 
set orchards. (Fig. 22.) Often orchards which so far 
as the health of the trees is concerned might be renovated 
cannot be so worked over because too much wood would 
have to be removed to bring the tops down to workable 
heights, or too many trees would have to be cut out to 
leave profitable numbers in given areas. 



CHAPTER III 

THE PHILOSOPHY OF PRUNING* 

38. Good and bad effects of pruning. — Every owner of 
a fruit tree expects to prune, or at least, he considers the 
advisability of the operation. There is the greatest dif- 
ference of opinion as to the merits of particular styles 
and methods of pruning, and perhaps equal difference as 




FIG. 23— RESULT OF CLOSE PLANTING AND POOR PRUNING 
These tree heads are practically out of reach, hence spraying and thinning are 
out of the question and harvesting so costly as to "eat up the profits." 

to the effect of the operation on the life and health of the 
tree. Perhaps every fruit growler has observed evil effects 
to result from pruning, and many of these observers have 
reasoned therefrom that pruning is itself injurious, or at 

* This chapter, except the parts in brackets, is the somewhat condensed answer 
which L. H. Bailey gave the Peninsular Horticultural Society to the question, "Does 
Pruning Devitalize Plants?" 

34 



THE PHILOSOPHY OF PRUNING 



35 



least hazardous. I cannot, of course, uphold or explain 
away the examples of injury which follow pruning. They 
arc patent even to the casual observer, but we must not 
exalt individual instances, however numerous, into proofs 
of the perniciousness of pruning. 

There should be at this day sufficient study and experi- 
ence to enable us to pass upon the merits of the practice 
as a whole. It is urgent, also, that the subject be dis- 
cussed, for however much of correct teaching may be 




FIG. 24— HOW NOT TO MANAGE TREES 
Trees neglected and vivisected like these cannot be made to pay either as invest- 
ments or as objects of beauty. 

promulgated, there is a constantly recurring wave of 
error and prejudice. For myself, I am convinced that 
pruning, even when somewhat heroic, is not a devitalizing 
practice. In support of this conviction I shall present 
arguments from three sources — philosophy, plant physi- 



36 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 

ology and common experience. I do not purpose to dis- 
cuss mechanical injuries to the trees, as a result of wounds, 
for we all know that such injuries are a result of careless 
or injudicious pruning. My proposition is this: Does it 
injure a plant to remove a part of it? Is the entire growth 
necessary to a plant's health and longevity? 

39. The argument from philosophy. — There is an in- 
tense struggle for existence among all organisms. The 
world is now full, and there can probably be no perma- 
nent increase in the sum total of animals and plants. If 
one species increases, another must decrease. Changes 
in the numbers of individuals are, therefore, largely mat- 
ters of readjustment between different types. Each kind 
is held down to a certain equilibrium in relation to other 
kinds. It is easy to see that any species of animal or 
plant could completely occupy the surface of the globe, 
if it could multiply to the full extent of its powers. Not 
only do some species compete with others, but the indi- 
viduals of the same species compete with each other for 
standing room. The greater the number of thistles in a 
given field, the less is the opportunity for another thistle 
plant to gain a foothold. 

Now, a tree is essentially a collection or colony of in- 
dividual plants. Every branch, even every joint of the 
branch, is endeavoring to do what every other branch 
does — to bear leaves, flowers and seeds. Every branch 
competes with every other branch ; and there are more 
germs of branches — that is, more buds — than there can 
be branches upon any tree. So it comes that no two 
branches of a tree are exactly alike, but are what their 
position or condition makes them to be. Some are strong 
and some are weak. That is, there is no definite or proper 
size or shape for any branch, as there is for the various 
parts of an animal or a flower. The limbs and organs of 
an animal are not competitors but co-partners, each per- 
forming some function or office which another does not, 



THE PHILOSOPHY OF PRUNING 



37 



and they all obtain a definite maturity of size and shape. 
But a branch never attains its full size until it ceases to 
grow and thereby begins to die. Branches arc not or- 
gans, but competing individuals. 

If all these statements are true, then three conclusions 
follow : a, there is struggle for existence among the 
branches of a tree (Fig. 
25), and some of the 
contestants perish ; b, 
the destruction of these 
■branches must conduce 
to the betterment of the 
remaining ones ; c, all 
the branches of a tree 
are not necessary to it, 
but some of them may 
be a detriment to it. In 
other words, pruning is 
a necessity. 

40. An instance from 
nature. — Two years ago 
a wild, black cherry 
tree came up near my 
door.* 

The first year, it sent 
up a single straight 19- 
inch shoot, which pro- 
duced 27 buds and one 
branchlet 8 inches long. 
This branchlet bore 12 buds. At the end of the first sea- 
son, therefore, the little tree had produced a total of 39 
buds, one branchlet and 27 inches of growth. The second 
year, 19 of these 39 buds produced branches, and 20 did 
not start. These 19 branches made a total growth of 231 



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FIG. 25— WHITE PINE PLANTATION, 

BEFORE THINNING 
Note how branches have died from lack 
of light. Compare with Fig. 26. 



* The reader will f nd it interestin'; to rtudy some little seedling tree in the way 
the tree here discussed has been studied. 



38 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



inches and produced 370 buds. The termhial branch or 
shoot grew 36 inches long. 

Here, then, is a little tree two years old and 4>4 feet 

high which has rnade 
an effort to bear 409 
branches. It is plain 
that more than 90 per 
cent of these efforts 
must be futile. Many 
of the buds will not 
start, but the tree 
now has a total of 27 
branches and subdivi- 
sions as a result of its 
first year's growth, if it 
makes a proportional 
number this year from 
the growth [of last 
year], it will bear 216 
branches at the close of 
this season and will 
have made a total effort 
of about 3,500 branch- 
germs or buds. This 
little tree will undergo 
a severe pruning in the 
coming years, altliough 
a knife does not touch 
it. 

But the natural thin- 
ning of the top will 
continue in geometrical 
ratio as long as the tree 
grows ; and after a time 
this pruning will be- 
come more severe, for larger branches will be sacrificed. 
Probably less than a fifth of the buds upon any tree ever 







f 



FIG. 26— WHITE PINE PLANTATION 

AFTER THINNING 

Compare with Fig. 25. Note piles of brush 

and the trunks pruned of dead branches 



Til! 

make branches, 
less than a fifth of taj 
branches persist. The 
greater part of these 
branches die before 
they come to bearing- 
age, no doubt, but some 
of them perish after 
they have attained a 
consideral)le size. A 
forest tree grows a tall, 
straight bole because 
the side branches are 
lopped olTf (Fig. 27), 
and the more vigorous 
this pruning, the taller 
and stronger the tree 
becomes. 

Another black cherry 
tree, two years old, 
found in the woods, 
bore buds at regular 
intervals — about two 
dozen of them. The 
second year the ter- 
minal bud sent out a 
shoot, and 13 lateral 
buds gave rise to 
branches. Of these 13 
lateral branches only 
three stand any chance 
of living in the dense 
shade of the forest. In 
fact, four or five of the 
lowest twigs were dead 
when the [observa- 
tion] was made; show- 
ing that the struggle 



PiIILOSOPIIY OF PRUNING 

and 



39 




FIG. 27— SEEDLING CHESTNUT 103 YEARS 
OLD — Shade caused natural pruning of 
limbs for over 30 feet. 



40 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 

for existence does not always result from competition 
among fellows, but may arise from the crowding of other 
plants (Figs. 18, 25). 

The three strong branches are less than 4 feet from the 
ground, but other old cherry trees standing near it have 
no branches within 15 and 20 feet of the ground. They, 
no doubt, branched low down, as this one, but the 
branches eventually died in the struggle, and we, there- 
fore, have reason to conclude that of all the branches on 
this little tree only the terminal one can long sur\'ive. 
One has only to look on the forest floor to see how freely 
trees shed their twigs. The trunk of a tree, then, is the 
remainder in a long problem of subtraction. 

So every tree is a record of defeats and disasters in 
order that the stronger parts may live. It is safe to con- 
clude that if nature is such a searching and undogmatic 
pruner, man may prune, too. Those persons who declaim 
that pruning is unnatural should be taken into a neglected 
orchard and be made to see what has transpired in the 
tree tops. 

41. Is artificial pruning excessive? — T may be met here 
with the criticism that artificial pruning is excessive ; 
but I answer that it is not different in kind from natural 
pruning, and that it is fully warranted by the different 
objects in view. The ultimate object of nature is the pro- 
duction of seeds, and the larger number of viable seeds 
produced the better. Man covets the fleshy portion of the 
fruit, or some other character which is of minor impor- 
tance to the plant. He must, therefore, thin the plant 
rigorously — reduce the struggle for existence — in order 
that size and quality may come before number. He 
simply deflects the energy into another channel! 

42. The argument from plant physiology is equally im- 
portant. It is a common assertion that cutting off a limb 
is an injury because it removes a given amount of tissue 
in the production of which the plant expended effort ; that 
is, that pruning exhausts the plant. This statement as- 



THE PIIILOSOPIIV OF PRUNING 41 

sumes that a plant has a certain fixed vitality, from which 
a given amount is withdrawn whenever a portion of the 
plant is cut away. I might illustrate this by supposing 
that a plant has an initial vitality represented by the 
number 10; then, if one-tenth of the top is removed, there 
is left a vitality of 9. But this assumption is wholly 
gratuitous. Vitality is very largely determined by the 
conditions under which a plant grows — the character of 
the soil and treatment. As plants have no nerves, they 
cannot die of shock, as we sometimes hear it said. 

Every fruit grower knows that two trees, of the same 
initial vigor, if given different soil and care, may differ 
widely from each other in thrift and healthfulness at the 
expiration of five years. If the plant is very largely what 
its food supply and other environments make it to be, if 
it is constantly renewed and augmented, then the removal 
of a portion of it cannot destroy its vitality unless the re- 
moval is so great as to interfere with the nutrition of the 
remaining parts. It may be replied that the tissue, the 
wood, which is removed in large limbs, might have been 
saved to the tree by directing it into other parts of the 
top by means of earlier pruning. This may be true ; but 
this saving would have resulted only in an economy of 
time by building up the other parts earlier in the lifetime 
of the tree, and not in an economy of vitality, for vitality 
is constantly renewed. 

43. Early pruning as a life saver. — It may be a question 
if we really save a proportionate amount of time by early 
pruning; that is, whether we can direct the same amount 
of growth into the remaining portions of the plant by 
pruning very early in its lifetime, as we can by pruning 
when the superfluous branches have attained some size 
and have, perhaps, begun to bear. There is an exact 
balance between the root-system and the superficial 
growth of the plant. The more active and efficient the 
root, the larger the top. If we remove a large portion of 



42 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



this top, there is an endeavor to supply the deficiency by 
an exceedingly rapid growth. So pruned plants are 
nearly always more vigorous than unpruned ones, be- 
cause of the concentration of a somewhat constant food 
supply into a smaller number of branches. Therefore, 
pruning must have much the same effect as manuring. 

The stimulating effect of this new growth, or new dis- 
position of energy, must be felt upon the root system 

also; and it is a point 
for discussion as to 
whether this stimulus 
and response to new 
conditions may not be 
greater when the prun- 
ing is somewhat heroic 
than when it is so 
evenly distributed over 
the lifetime of the tree 
as to be imperceptible. 
Growth is certainly 
more emphatic follow- 
ing a heroic pruning, 
but its total may not be 
greater than that which 
follows several prun- 
ings of equal aggregate 
severity. 

My own observation 
and experience lead me 
to believe that annual 
pruning of all fruit 
trees is desirable, but I 
am equally convinced that to cut out all the superfluous 
twigs at each pruning does not pay, either in cost of 
pruning or in good to the tree. These superfluous twigs 
may often be left with advantage until they are two or 
three or even four years old. Although stimulating 




FIG. 28— HOW BRANCHES ARE BURIED 

1, Dead twig healed in; 2, twig dead at 
tip being healed in; 3, twig with decayed 
pith being healed in; 4, dead twig completely 
healed in; 5, two branches healed in, one 
pointing left, vigorous when cut, one pointing 
up dead part way out; 6, "eyes" where oblique 
limbs started from main trunk. 



THE PHILOSOPHY OF PRUNING 43 

effects may result from the considerable unbalance of the 
plant when many branches are removed, these super- 
fluous and unpruned twigs often afford a very useful 
shelter or sun-screen to the inner parts of the top, and 
they lessen the danger of over-pruning, by which the 
nutrition of the tree may be injured. 

I have said that pruning increases vigor. Two trees of 
Siberian Crab were set 25 feet apart near my house in the 
spring. These trees are as near alike as any two apple 
trees I have ever seen. I measured the growth on one 
of these trees and found it to have been 745 inches. The 
tree was then thoroughly pruned and 460 inches of wood 
removed. Of this, 432 inches was new wood. The total 
weight of this wood was l}i ounces. 

The other tree was not pruned. During the third sea- 
son the unpruned tree produced 118 new twigs, with a 
total length of 1.758 inches, while the pruned tree pro- 
duced 120 new twigs and made a total growth of 1,926 
inches. The pruned tree, therefore, made 14 feet more 
growth than the other and stouter growth also, a large 
proportion for a tree only three years set. In other words, 
a tree from which about 40 feet of branches had been cut 
bore at the end of a single season 14 feet more wood than 
a similar tree which had not been pruned. Aside from 
the greater growth which this pruning induced, the ex- 
periment shows — in common with all similar ones — that 
it is impossible to injure trees by what is called a shock. 

It is often said that the time of the year when pruning 
is performed influences the amount of growth [and] that 
pruning in winter makes wood and pruning in summer 
makes fruit (83, 95. 97, 107. 108, 109). Certainly winter 
pruning makes more wood than summer pruning does 
in the current year, because the season's growth is nearly 
or quite completed when the summer pruning is per- 
formed. 

44. Why pruning is not injurious. — T have said that 



44 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 

pruning, of itself, cannot be injurious so long as it does 
not interfere with the nutrition of the plant. It is im- 
portant, therefore, that I explain how this interference 
occurs. A plant derives a certain portion of its food from 
the soil in the shape of soluble inorganic materials 
(Chapter II). 

These materials ascend to the leaves through the young 
wood and become associated with organized compounds 
like starch and sugar. These organized compounds are 
used in the repair and growth of all parts of the plant 
and they are, therefore, distributed to the leaves, twigs, 
trunk and roots. The growth of the roots is, therefore, 
largely determined by the amount and vigor of the top 
or leaf-bearing portion. [Hence] the removal of the 
greater part of the top may interfere with the vigor of 
the plant by preventing the supply of a sufficient amount 
of elaborated food. 

This difficulty is sometimes experienced in the girdling 
or ringing (100) of grapevines, which prevents the dis- 
tribution of the elaborated plant foods to the roots. It 
should be said, however, that the grape is pruned the 
most severely of all fruits, and it is, therefore, easy to 
overstep the danger line ; and yet it is strange that while 
certain writers disparage the pruning of trees, they do 
not object to the common pruning of the vine. In fruit 
trees the instances of injurious interference with nutri- 
tion by pruning are rare ; they need not be further con- 
sidered here. This is proved by the good results which 
so often follow the heroic treatment of top-grafted trees. 

45. Removal of large branches bad practice. — But if 
pruning is not devitalizing, if the removal of strong 
branches induces more vigorous growth in the remaining 
ones, and if there is little danger of disturbing the nutri- 
tion of the tree, it must follow that there can be no ob- 
jection to the removal of large branches. I cannot agree 
to this inference, although I am willing to say that the 



1 




FIG. 29— APPLE TWIGS OF VARIOUS AGES 
A water sprout one season old, numerous branch buds. B, shoot from a fruit 
spur bearing new fruit spurs toward its upper end. Each of these spurs has 
attempted to produce fruits, but the apples have almost all failed to mature. 
C. eight-year-old twig whose fruit spurs have made 31 attempts to bear but have 
succeeded in maturing fruits only five times, most of the specimens falling before 
half grown. D, three-year-old shoot with vigorous fruit spurs. E, similar shoot 
with one fruit spur which "changed its mind" and became a branch. 



46 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 

removal of such branches may not be objectionable so 
far as the direct injury or shock to the vitality of the tree 
is concerned. But there are important reasons why large 
branches should not be removed. 

Such pruning exposes dangerous wounds; it is apt to 
open the tree so much that some of the remaining parts 
scald and borers obtain a foothold ; it may spoil the sym- 
metry or convenience of the tree, and such branches may 
represent a certain amount of energy which should 
have been earlier directed elsewhere. Aside from 
all this, the cutting away of very large branches often in- 
dicates a lack of enterprise and forethought on the part 
of the grower, and suggests the feeling that he may be 
remiss in all his operations. But while I discourage the 
removal of branches 3 and 4 inches in diameter, it is not 
because I consider such practice a devitalizing one. I 
should much prefer the removal of such large branches 
to total neglect. I have myself removed many such 
branches 10 and 15 years ago from apple trees which are 
today in most perfect health and vigor. 

46. Experience the best teacher.^If philosophy and 
physiology show that pruning is not a devitalizing 
process, common experience affords still stronger proof. 
One of the commonest absurdities in our horticultural 
literature is the admonition to prune only with a knife, 
thereby avoiding the cutting of large limbs. Not an or- 
chardist in the country practices this advice if he prunes 
thoroughly! If scientific teaching and permanently suc- 
cessful practice are opposed, then the teaching is wrong. 
[Certainly] some of our accepted teaching on pruning 
will not stand the test of time. I have frequently observed 
that well-pruned trees live as long as those unpruned, 
and I am inclined to believe that they may live longer. 
They [surely] produce more [and better fruit] during 
their lifetime. 

But suppose that pruning is a devitalizing process — 



THE PHILOSOPHY OF PRUNING 47 

what then? Even then we could not afford to discontinue 
it. The gains in size and quality of fruit, in ease of culti- 
vation and spraying of the plants, are advantages which 
progressive horticulture can never forego. Advise a 
grape-grower to discontinue pruning! 

47. Summary. — It appears to be safe to conclude, from 
the foregoing considerations, that pruning is a legitimate 
practice, finding warrant in wild plants, in physiology 
and in the experience of centuries. It is not of itself, as 
ordinarily performed, a devitalizing practice, while its 
advantages are several and important. There is abundant 
opportunity for improvement in methods, and every plant 
needs a particular treatment, and perhaps some species 
or varieties demand little, if any, thinning; but, as a 
whole, pruning is indispensable to successful horticulture. 



CHAPTER IV 

BUDS 

48. A bud is a rudimentary plant part which upon de- 
velopment produces (1) a leaf or a cluster of leaves, (2) a 
stem, (3) a flower or a cluster of flowers, or (4) a cluster 
of leaves and flowers together. The first of these are 
called leaf buds, the second wood or branch buds, the 
third flower buds and the fourth mixed or cluster buds. 




FIG. 30*— DEHORNING WITH A VENGEANCE 
Instead of healing over, the stubs have decayed. Such a tree is a wreck. 

* There's a joke in the tower seen in the background. The negative had 
been injured at this point, so the engraver built a new tower of a style with which 
he is presumably familiar because of his lodge affiliation ! The actual architecture 
of this tower is seen in Fig. 94. 

48 



BUDS 



49 



49. Leaf buds may be produced anywhere on stems not 
too old to perform this function, but leaves are mostly 
developed at the nodes in spring and early summer upon 
shoots newly expanding from terminal and lateral buds. 

50. A wood or branch bud is an undeveloped branch 
inclosed in modified leaves or bud scales which protect a 
rudimentary axis and leaves that under favorable condi- 
tions of growth expand into branches bearing leaves and 
perhaps flowers also. 

51. A flower bud is an unexpanded flower protected or 
not by bud scales. 

52. A mixed or cluster bud is often termed merely a 
flower bud, as in the case of apple and pear; but since, 
upon expansion, it develops both leaves and flowers, it 
is more definite to use the correct term. 

53. Other names for buds. — For convenience, various 
terms are used to describe still more definitelv all of the 




FIG. 31— NEW GROWTH ON "DEHORNED" PEACH TREE 
Some of the cuts — for instance, the one in the center — should have been re-cut 
to favor healing over. Notice the sturdy new growths from the old branches. The 
tree was full of good fruit when the photo was taken. 



50 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 

above classes. As to position, buds are (a) lateral or 
axillary ; that is, produced in the leaf axils, or (b) termi- 
nal ; that is, borne at the extremities of shoots. Buds 
may also be dormant or latent. 

54. Dormant or resting buds are developed during the 
growing season, but remain quiescent during the winter 
or the dry season which follows. If they continue to rest 
longer than this, though still technically "resting buds," 
they are usually termed latent. 

55. Latent buds require a more vigorous stimulus than 
do dormant buds to force them into growth. They are com- 
monly located upon the lower portions of shoots and 
branches, and simply because of their unfavorable posi- 
tion do not as often expand under normal growth stimuli 
as do buds farther up on the stems. The peach, especially 
a young tree, furnishes an excellent illustration, because 
usually only the terminal and a few of the upper buds on 
"last year's" growth normally develop into twigs "this 
year." However, if the last year's growth be cut back, 
twigs will develop from buds which would otherwise 
remain latent. 

Generally the terminal bud and those near it are the 
first to expand into twigs, and generally, also, the strength 
of these twigs is, according to their relative position, the 
strongest from the terminal bud the next strong from the 
nearest lateral bud, the weakest from the lowest lateral 
that expands. There usually remain several to many 
lateral buds which continue latent. 

For experiment, let the branch be cut off just below 
the lowest bud that has developed a twig. In due time 
the highest latent bud will assume more or less satis- 
factorily the duties of a terminal bud and adjacent buds 
will develop lateral twigs (Fig. 66). If the original 
branch is long enough, this experiment may be repeated as 
long as any latent buds remain. Whether the experiment 
be performed on "last year's" wood or wood several years 



BUDS 



51 



older is immaterial ; the buds if still living may awake 
from their latency and produce twigs. Very important 
use is made of this principle in transplanting nursery 
trees and in dehorning (Fig. 31), though it must be said 
that in the latter practice the buds which expand are 
mostly 

55a. Adventitious buds. — When buds are produced at 
unexpected points on roots, stems or leaves, they are said 
to be adventitious, because they are not in normal posi- 
tions. From the standpoint of the pruner they are of 
great importance 
for two reasons ; 
namely, (1) they 
may develop suck- 
ers from the roots 
or water sprouts 
(Fig. 32) from 
the trunks and 
branches, and it 
may be necessary 
to destroy these ad- 
ventitious, undesir- 
able growths. The 
suckers in plants 
that have been 
grafted or budded 
are almost inva- 
riably undesirable, because the stock is of a different char- 
acter from that of the cion or top. 

In some cases the stock, being often of more vigorous 
habit than the cion, would grow so rapidly that the cion 
might be star\'ed to death, as often happens with grafted 
and budded roses that are neglected in this particular. 
(2) Conversely, adventitious buds arc important because 
they may be relied upon to produce new growths. The 
most important applications of this development are (a) 




FIG. 32— NOTHING WRONG WITH THE ROOTS 
Trees which show such vigorous growths of 
suckers and water sprouts always have sturdy, 
abundant and healthy roots. The trouble is in 
the top. 



52 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 

in plant propagation, where the adventitious buds pro- 
duce roots on layers, cuttings, etc., and (b) in pruning 
and "dehorning," where they, as well as latent buds, are 
relied upon to produce new shoots, some of which may 
be favorably enough placed to develop new branches or 
even whole heads. 

56. Where blossom buds are borne. — In order to prune 
intelligently for the production of flowers and fruit, it is 
essential that the pruner know where blossom buds are 
normally borne. While the positions of these buds na- 
turally vary among the varieties of any species with the 
vigor and the age of the plant, with environment and 
other factors, yet each species has its own characteristic 
method of blossom or fruit bearing. In general, species 
and their varieties may be grouped in two general classes 
each with its subdivisions. These are characterized thus : 

A. BLOSSOM OR CLUSTER BUDS EASILY SEEN DURING WINTER 

on "last season's" twigs: 1, Axillary: Peach (Fig. 46), 
hazel, filbert (almost always), almond, currant (Fig. 49), 
gooseberry (mainly. Fig. 50), apricot and Japanese plum 
(partly. Fig. 48), apple and pear (sometimes). 2, Terminal, 
mainly on spurs. Apple, pear (almost always, Figs. 35, 36), 
cherry (Figs. 41, 42, 43, 44, 45), plum (Figs. 39, 40) and 
apricot (mainly), almond and currant (partly). B. blossom 
BUDS NOT VISIBLE DURING WINTER because borne on "this sea- 
son's" twigs: 1, axillary on canes or strong shoots: Grape 
(Figs. 51, 57), mulberry, persimmon, olive, chestnut, fig 
(Fig. 33); 2, a, terminal on terminal shoots: Loquat ; h, 
terminal, or nearly so, on lateral shoots developed during 
summer: Orange and the bramble fruits (raspberry, Figs. 
55, 56, blackberry, Fig. 54, dewberry) ; 3, co-terminal, 
that is on the ends of short shoots developed from buds 
formed "last season" and wintered over. Quince (Fig 
58), medlar, hickory, and walnut. 

From the above outline it is obvious that in pruning 
for flower and fruit production the operator, while not 



BUDS 



53 



losing sight of the effects his work may have upon the 
general growth of the tree or shrub as to form and de- 
velopment, must consider the way in which blossom buds 
are produced so he can intelligently regulate the number 
and development of the buds, twigs and branches which 
are to bear these flowers 
and fruits. The following 
paragraphs will, therefore, 
help the uninstructed 
reader to determine how to 
make decisions so far as 
buds are concerned. 

57. Age of shoot deter- 
mined by bud scars. — In 
pruning practice it is often 
necessary to know the age 
of branches and twigs. Ex- 
cept where secondary 
growth has taken place this 
can easily be determined 
until the branches become 
too old to reveal the dis- 
tinguishing marks, rings 
and a bulge. These may 
not, however, be as marked 
in this case as in normal 
cases. When the terminal 
is a fruit bud the branch 
usually kills back to the 
first sturdy lateral twig, 
which then assumes the 
duties of leadership. Very 
marked cases of thickening occur with some varieties of 
apple and pear fruit spurs which are often three times 
the diameter of the twigs below the swellings. The 
scars were left by the bud scales which fell off when the 
terminal bud pushed into growth. When the terminals 




FIG. 33— FRUITING HABIT OF FIG 

Fruits axillary on "this season's" 

growths. 



54 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 

are wood buds the direction of growth is practically 
straight, but when they are blossom buds or when the 
terminal wood bud or shoot is destroyed accidentally or 
purposely, an axillary bud will develop a shoot which will 
depart more or less from the straight line. (Fig. 67.) 
This is especially characteristic of apple and pear spurs, 
which in many varieties become greatly contorted. 

58. Fruit spurs and buds. — An examination of twigs 
two seasons old of, say, apple and gooseberry, will show 
how axillary buds often develop, 1, into twigs as already 
noted (50) and, 2, into tiny spurs terminated by blossom 
or cluster buds (Fig. 29). Often these latter are so short 
as to be mistaken for true buds instead of bud-terminated 
spurs. When these buds swell, they may develop several 
to many leaves or flowers or both. When they do not 
produce flowers, a terminal bud may be formed during 
"this season" for the extension of the twig "next season" ; 
and when flowers develop into one or more fruits, a 
branch bud may be formed in the axil of a leaf to extend 
the twig more or less laterally "next season." In this 
last case the twig may grow for several seasons in the di- 
rection thus taken ; that is, until it develops a terminal 
cluster bud and thus makes a change of direction nec- 
essary. 

59. Meaning of scars on fruit spurs. — When fruit 
reaches maturity it leaves a scar at the point of its attach- 
ment to the fruit spur or twig. It is often said that such 
scars indicate the number of fruits borne by the spurs, 
but this is not always true, because frequently short 
twigs, which at some previous time bore flowers, may 
kill back to the main fruit spur, and when they fall off 
leave scars like those left by fruits that matured. The 
only way to be sure is to note whether or not the scars 
are solitary or in clusters. Where solitary they have 
probably been formed by twigs ; where in clusters, by 
flowers or more or less mature fruits surrounding the 
scar of a fruit that reached maturity. 




SSi:£Si;°*gES:SiiiS£«i=2:SE 



56 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



60. Slow growth favors fruitfulness. — Since lack of 
light due to disadvantageous position tends to reduce food 
supply and consequently size of twigs, many twigs so 
deprived develop into fruit spurs. Hence it may be con- 
cluded that slow growth favors fruitfulness. Generally 
when twigs have developed the fruit-bearing habit they 
continue in this habit. Thus at, say, 20 years of age, they 
may be only a few inches long though they may have 
produced a considerable number of fruits. It does not 




FIG. 35— FRUITING SPURS OF APPLE 
The left-hand specimen has evidently borne a fruit. A cluster bud has de- 
veloped on the stub and a branch or spur bud is swelling below. A similar case 
is in the middle, but two cluster buds have been formed. The right-hand specimen 
shows the mummy of an apple that failed to mature beside the branch bud of 
which a new branch bud has formed. The other spurs also on this twig show normal 
growth, the spurs being two years old. 

follow that the habit cannot be broken or that advantage 
cannot be taken of it, as in invigorating old fruit spurs. 
(Fig. 150.) Injudicious pruning is one of the surest ways 
of destroying the fruit-bearing habit; and this, too, with- 
out the removal of any of the spurs. (Fig. 171.) Heavy 
pruning, especially during the winter of a season when 
the crop is light, will force many strong growths from the 
fruit spurs as well as from other parts of the tree, so that, 



BUDS 



57 



as many an orchardist will shamefacedly admit, there 
will be little or no fruit for one to several years, 

61. Pome fruit bud positions vary. — Most commonly 
apples and pears bear their cluster buds terminally on 
gnarly little twigs 
called fruit spurs 
(Fig. 34). When 
these buds expand, 
they show perhaps 
half a dozen to a 
dozen leaves sur- 
rounding maybe as 
many flowers. Usu- 
ally not more than 
one, or possibly 
two, of these blos- 
soms develops into 
a mature fruit (Fig. 
35). The others 
drop ofif. The fruit- 
ripening process is 
apparentl}'- an ex- 
haustive one, for 
the spur which ma- 
tures a fruit "this 
season" will usually 
not develop one 
"next year." While 
the fruit is ripen- 
ing, a branch bud is 
developing near the 
fruit-stem attach- 
ment to the spur. 
This branch bud 
swells the following season into a short growth termi- 
nated by a cluster bud. Thus fruit spurs theoretically 




FIG. 36— BLOOMING TWIG OF APPLE 
Variations such as these are not uncommon. Note 
that the cluster buds are mainly on short spurs 
(below) ; that in the center a fruit has evidently 
been borne and other fruit spurs have developed 
from the sides of this spur; also that one of the 
buds has developed a short branch with a terminal 
cluster bud. 



58 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 




bear each alternate year and 
continue for many years to 
make their gnarly growth. Such 
being the case, great care must 
usually be exercised to prevent 
injury to the fruit spurs ; for if 
they are destroyed they cannot 
be replaced. The only way 
new ones can be secured is to 
develop water sprouts, upon 
which, after much loss of time, 
new spurs will form. 

Apple and pear cluster buds, 
though usually terminal as 
shown in the outline (56), are 
not always so. Though fruit 
spurs are usually two seasons 
old before mature fruits can be 
gathered from them, this rule 
has its exceptions. Indeed, 
some varieties produce con- 
siderable fruit on the tips of 
"last season's" twigs or on 
spurs of the same age (Fig. 
36). Certain varieties of apples 
produce blossom buds in the 
axils of leaves of "last season" 
and mature their fruits "this 
season." Such cases as these 
appear to be very ex- 
_, . , . ,. . , . ceptional in the eastern United 

This twig grew on the interior i . , 
of the tree. Notice 1, the large StatCS, but Comparatively corn- 
number of blossoms; 2, the small . ,, -.,j ^ :„ 11,, :„ 

number of branch buds; and 3, mon m the West, especially in 

that in several cases (clearly seen „pp4.:p,nc where Irrip-atiou is 
at a) branch buds have been re- SeCtlOUS WnCFC llllgdLiuii 1:5 

placed by flowers. practiced. The practical value 

of this fact is that those varieties which produce blos- 
som buds on growths only one season old tend to 



FIG. 37— PEACH SPUR 



BUDS 



59 



be more reg-iilar annual bearers of fruit than do those 
varieties which produce fruit buds only on older growth. 
Annual bearing, it must be stated, however, is a habit 
which is dependent not upon this one factor alone, but 
upon other factors. For instance, certain spurs may bear 
fruit one year, while others are fruitless. The following 
season the fruitless spurs may 
hear the crop, while the pre- 
viously fruitful ones may take 
a rest. Fruit spurs MAY pro- 
duce fruit each alternate year, 
but this is not nearly as regular 
a habit as it is popularly be- 
lieved to be. 

62. Pit fruit bud positions. — 
While the outline (56) shows 
the general ways in which pit 
fruit buds are borne, yet the 
variations due to variety, en- 
vironment and other causes de- 
serve a special paragraph. 

Stone fruit blossom buds are 
unlike those of apple and pear 
in being simple ; that is, they 
are not clustered with leaves, 
though plum and cherry buds 
often contain a few little leaves 
that usually drop off before the 
fruit ripens. Sometimes peach 
and apricot buds contain two 
flowers, though one is the nor- 
mal number. Cherry buds 
usually reveal two flower buds, though the number may 
vary from one to five. The same is true of plums, except 
that two or three are the usual numbers. 

The peach bears its blossom buds singly beside a 
branch bud or in pairs with a branch bud between, except 




FIG. 38— ANNUAL GROWTH OF 
PEACH 
The three pieces constitute one 
branch of "last" season's growth. 
Note, 1, positions of the bloom-^ 
near the middle of the branch; 2, 
that normally a branch bud lies 
between two bloom buds and also 
at the terminal; 3, that bloom ex- 
tends nearly to the tip with only 
short, bare intervals above and 
below the main blooming area, and 
these intervals bear branch or leaf 
buds; 4, that the lowest branch 
buds are not swelling while the 
upper ones are. 



60 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



as noted two paragraphs below. It is believed by many 
fruit growers that this simple bud habit is one of the rea- 
sons why peach buds are usually more largely winter- 
killed than are the buds of apples and pears, which are in 
well-protected cluster buds. In the bud which contains no 
leaves the flowerparts usuallyhavefewprotecting bud scales. 
An examination will show that the branch buds of the 
stone fruits are closely similar in structure and posi- 
tion to those of the ]ionie fruits. Still there are 

differences. For in- 
stance, apricots and 
many plums seldom de- 
velop terminal buds of 
any kind, and the axil- 
lary buds of these two 
fruits and also of 
peaches may produce 
blossoms instead of 
leaves. 

To illustrate this 
point still further : Nor- 
mally the peach pro- 
duces two blossom 
buds with a wood bud 
between them, but often 
even this central wood 
bud gives place to a 
flower, so three flowers 
are produced in a group 
(Fig. 37). When the 
terminal bud fails to 
form, the nearest axillary bud, if a branch bud, assumes 
the duties of a terminal wood bud and the following sea- 
son extends the branch in practically as straight a line 
as if it were a true terminal. 

When peach trees are making normal growth the blos- 
soms are more often in couples than they are solitary. 



^^^^^''1^ 


■ 




1 


^^^■j 


1 



FIG. 39— EUROPEAN PLUM 
Branch shows typical blooming habit, 
flowers being borne largely in pairs or singly 
on last season's wood. 



BUDS 



6] 



When the growth is strong the blossom buds are nearer 
the tips than the bases of the twigs, because their posi- 
tions are largely determined by the vigor of the trees 
upon which they are borne. When the growth is weak 
the buds are mainly solitary and scattered from end to 
end of the twigs. When the growth is moderate the buds 
are mostly near the middles of the twigs. Young and rank- 
growing trees show 
them near the twig tips. 

It is important to re- 
member that the blos- 
som-bearing habit of the 
peach tends to make 
the fruit-bearing area of 
the tree move each sea- 
son farther from the 
center of the tree (Fig. 
46), instead of continu- 
ing, as in the apple and 
the pear, in a prac- 
tically set area. The 
pruner must, therefore, 
maintain a supply of 
bearing wood on the 
branches, which he 
must not allow to ex- 
tend too far. The wiry 
interior growths re- 
ferred to above rarely bear fruits more than two years, 
often only one. They soon die and must be cut out. 

All this indicates far more severe pruning of the peach 
than of the apple or the pear. This is especially the case 
with young tnees whose "leaders" are prone to make 
the trees too high. Pruners often remove or very severely 
cut back all the leaders for several years, even though they 
know new ones fully as vigorous will replace them. 

62a. The plums vary somewhat with their species as 




FIG. 40— JAPANESE PLUM 
It is characteristic of this species to pro- 
duce flowers largely in threes. 



62 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



to the positions of their blossom buds. None of them 
bear on "this season's" growth so they naturally belong 
to the first group in the classification (56). The great 
majority of the fruit buds are borne on short spurs similar 




^^'^' '^^^^^P^^'^'^ ^'J^S OF SOUR CHERRY ARE BORNE AIMOST Tn thf 
TERMINALS, BUT ARE MOST NUMEROUS NeXr THE BaIeJ ^ 
OF THE ONE SEASON'S GROWTH 

to those of the cherry, though in the varieties of some 
species and hybrids many are developed in the axils of 
leaves on the one-year wood. These bloom "next sea- 



1 



BUDS 



63 



son." The spurs bear their fruit buds mainly near the 
ends and lose the function in their lower parts as the spur 
elongates and branches. This may be readily determined 
by examining an old spur: the scars indicate where buds 
formerly developed into fruit. The distinction between 
fruit and leaf buds is not as easy to make as in the peach, 
pear or apple. Position is the safest guide. Usually the 
tip bud will produce a twig. Often, however, a side 1)ud 




FIG. 42— SWEET CHERRY TWIG IN TWO SECTIONS 
Blossoms opening on the right from cluster buds near the base of the annual 
growth. On the same twig higher up other buds have produced only leaves. The 
end of the two-year wood is seen at the base of the right-hand section. 

will also do so, though it is generally a flower bud. The 
best time to study this point is when the buds are swell- 
ing in spring. 

63. The apricot resembles the peach in fruiting habit, 
though it bears fewer fruit buds on the vigorous new 
wood. It bears considerable numbers on short growths 
which resemble the spurs of cherries and plums, though 
some are so short as to appear almost sessile and thus 



64 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



to be clusters of buds on the branch. A close examination 
will show that each of these groups of buds is borne in 
the axil of one leaf. This method of flower bud bearing 
is less general than the production of buds singly in the 
leaf axils. 

64. Cherries bear their fruit buds mainly on short spurs 
(Figs. 44, 45), much less laterally on the vigorous young 
shoots, except as noted below. In all 
cases, however, the buds are axillary, 
the termnal being a branch bud, 
hence the usually straight fruit spurs. 
As in the peach the twigs produced 
"last year" often bear blossom buds 
mostly near their bases. The 
branch buds farther up these twigs 
will many of them develop "this 
year" into spurs for "next year's" 
fruiting (Fig. 45). Among the sour 
cherries certain varieties produce 
considerable numbers of bloom 
buds on the new growths. After 
these have fruited they drop off and 
thus leave the long naked branches 
so commonly seen among the sour 
cherry varieties. The only areas 
that bear fruit in such varieties are 
near the ends of these slender 
branches. 

65. Recognition of fruit buds. — 
The cluster buds of apples and 
pears are readily distinguished by 
their plumpness and their well- 
rounded shape. Those of apricot and peach, though 
smaller, are about as conspicuous as apple and pear 
buds because of their positions as well as their 
forms. Cherry buds, especially on "last season's" wood, 
are harder to recognize because they are not very much 




FIG. 43— SWEET CHERRY 
Twig shows numerous 
spurs on two and three-year 
wood. Cluster buds (not 
seen) form near the base of 
one-year wood. Note that 
the tips of all spurs produce 
branches as indicated by the 
leaves. The same is true of 
terminal and axial buds. 



BUDS 



65 




FIG. 44— SOUR 
CHERRY 
At a is the dividing 
point between one- 
year and two-year 
wood. A fruit spur is 
also shown here. Simi- 
lar spurs are seen at 
b. Each of these bears 
three or four blossom 
buds and one branch 
bud, the latter at the 
tip. The spurs lower 
down have only branch 
buds at their tips. 
Branch buds are also 
seen on the one-year 
wood. 

themselves, all have 
vigorous "last season 




FIG. 45— FOUR-YEAR SWEET 
CHERRY TWIG 
Letters indicate ends of annual 
growths. The main twig is four years 
old; the largest branch three. The 
center bud in each cluster on the spurs 
is usually a branch bud whose func- 
tion is to extend the spur. 

blunter than the branch buds and 
because there is nothing- about 
their position to distinguish them. 
Plums, more especially those of 
the Domestica class, though dif- 
fering in minor respects among 
axillary fruit buds— sometimes on 
's" twigs, sometimes on older wood. 



66 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 




FIG. 46— FRUIT AND 
LEAF BUDS OF 

PEACH 
A, end of two-year 
and beginning of one- 
year wood. Buds 
largely in threes. The 
outside ones are fruit 
buds the ones between 
leaf buds. B, is con- 
tinuation of another 
part of the shoot — an- 
other third part. Such 
growths must be cut 
back severely both to 
reduce the number of 
fruits and to prevent 
the undue extension 
of the branches from 
the terminal buds, 
more particularly. The 
whole one-year part of 
the branch in this case 
is 30 inches long. It 
is cut in A at 8 inches 
and in B at 10. 



FIG. 47 
PEACH TWIGS THAT 
HAVE BORNE FRUIT 
B, note annual growth 
ring at c, above which 
the twig is one year 
old. C, four years' 
growth of a so-called 
spur with annual 
growths starting at c, 
d, e. Fruit stems on 
both twigs at b. Th s 
the fruits and the 
growths from e to the 
FIG. 46 tips of branch C were 

developed simultane- 
ously. Branch C is 12 inches long from c to 
the tip. Compare Fig. 46. 




FIG. 47 



Japanese plums suggest the apricot in bloom-bearing- 
habit — axillary buds on spurs and also on vigorous young 
wood ; in this latter case, like peach bloom buds, in 
couples, with a branch bud between. During the dormant 
season the recognition of plum blossom buds is often ex- 
ceedingly difficult, though in some varieties it is easy. 

66. Fruit bud formation and development.* — The fruit 
depends upon the formation and proper development of 



* Paragraphs 66 to 69 are synopsized from the extensive studies of A. 
Drinkard, Jr., of the Virginia Experiment Station, annual report, 1909-10. 



W. 



BUDS 



(i7 




FIG. 48— JAPANESE PLUM 
The branch shows one 
year's growth from a to fc at 
which latter point the ter- 
minal bud died and a lateral 
branch c developed 24 inches 
long the following season. 
At the same time two other 
laterals on the underside of 
the branch also developed 1 
and 2 inches long respec- 
tively. The twigs / are two 
years old, the annual rings 
being shown at f. Twigs g 
are one year old. Fruit spurs 
are seen at h. The fruit buds 
are largely in threes. Hence 
the need of fruit thinning. 



FIG. 49— CURRANT BRANCHES OF 
VARIOUS AGES 
A, four-year cane which has twice had its 
leader injured — a, broken; b, girdled. Branch 
c is two years old, the dividing point being 
at c. Branch d, also two years old, just above 
the upper cluster of blossom buds at d. 
Notice blossom buds on two-year spurs at e. 
The buds on the one-year growths at / 
should produce spurs and bloom buds for the 
following year's fruit. B. one-year cane pro- 
duced from the base of the bush. Two or 
three such canes should be allowed to grow 
each year to take the place of the four-year- 
old wood removed each year. C, two-year- 
old branch with bloom buds on older part, and 
branch (spur) buds on the younger. 



fruit buds. Hence kno'wledge of the time such buds are 
formed and developed will lead to knowledge of the 
factors that influence fruit bud formation and are con- 
ducive or detrimental to bud development. With these 
assumptions an enormous amount of work was conducted 
by Mr. Drinkard to determine, (1) the period of fruit bud 
formation by field observations; (2) the gross develop- 
ment of floral parts by microtome sections covering the 



68 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



changes between the initial period of terminal bud forma- 
tion (lateral for peach and plum) and the time of flower- 
ing; (3) the exact date of differentiation of pollen mother- 
cells and of the similar stage in ovogenesis ; (4) the period 

of origin of pollen 
grains and of ovules. 

During the growing 
season buds were se- 
lected every week or 10 
days and during the 
dormant season at 
longer intervals. They 
were killed, fixed, em- 
bedded, sectioned, 
stained and mounted 
according to approved 
laboratory methods and 
the various stages of 
growth and develop- 
m e n t recorded by 
photomicrographs. of 
which the original re- 
port shows 106. It is 
not necessary here to 
detail these methods, so 
we will pass to the 

67. General observa- 
tions. — The great 
amount of work in- 
volved in preparing mi- 
crosopic sections made 
it impossible to study a 
large number of varie- 
ties. At first four va- 
rieties of apples, three 
of plum and one each 
of peach, pear and 




FIG. 50— GOOSEBERRY BRANCHES, 
YOUNG AND OLD 
A, one-year growth from root. Two or 
three of the strongest of such shoots should 
be allowed to grow each year to replace old 
wood cut out after fruiting. Notice position 
of buds and length of spines — three in a 
cluster. The buds should form spurs for 
fruiting next season. B, five-year-old branch 
of a much less spiny variety. Canes should 
not be allowed to grow as old as this, but be 
pruned out when three or at most four years 
old. Bushes kept young by such pruning are 
usually healthier than ones in which the wood 
is older. Best and most fruit develops on 
two and three-year wood. 



BUDS 



69 



cherry were studied, but later only one variety ot each 
fruit was studied, h^ven these involved the preparation 
of many hundreds of mounts, mostly only those sections 

taken transv^ersely 
through the pistil 
of the fiower bud or 
through the center 
of the bud cluster. 
In early Novem- 
ber comparisons of 
sections of fruit 
buds from 25 varie- 
ties of plums 
showed a surpris- 
ingly wide range of 
development in- 
stead of expected 
uniformity. Hale, a 
Japanese variety, 
showed the most 
advanced develop- 
ment with flower 
parts apparently 
ready to unfold, 
pollen grains well 
formed, pistils well 
developed, ovules 
in the ovaries and 
buds decidedly 
swelled, as though 
preparing to open. 
On the other hand, 
some varieties, es- 
pecially among na- 
tives, showed very slight development, even during the 
latter third of the' month. Shortly after mid-December, 
examinations of 20 apple varieties showed a narrower 




FIG. 51— GRAPE CANE ONE YEAR DID 
The small piece at the base of the left section is 
two-year-old wood. The little knob at A is not a 
bud, but the remains of a lateral. Normally, buds 
de\elop opposite tendrils or fruit clusters (modified 
tendrils). Most of the tendrils in the specimen 
were broken off during the growing season. Each 
bud is capable of producing a new cane bearing 
leaves, fruit clusters and tendrils. 



70 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 

range of development, the majority being approximately 
the same, with early blooming and fruiting varieties in 
the lead, but not so markedly as among the plums. 

68. When fruit buds may be recognized. — Attempts to 
determine the approximate date when fruit buds may be 
distinguished by the naked eye show that observers 
should be guided partly by the positions in which such 
buds normally appear. Peach and plum fruit buds may 
be easily found in early fall, so may cherries, partly by 
position, partl}^ by their larger size. With apple and pear 
the feat is less easy. Increased size is not pronounced 
enough until late November or early December; how- 
ever, a pocket lens which magnifies 10 or 15 times will 
help locate such buds during October. 

69. Summary and conclusions. — il. Oldenburg apple fruit 
buds began to form in late June. Several other varieties 
showed similar development ; a large majority of the fruit 
buds formed in July, though the initial stages in many 
cases appeared late into the summer. Development con- 
tinued through summer and fall with completion of flower 
parts by about November 1. Development through the 
winter was mostly microscopic. In late February and 
early March important development occurred in the es- 
sential organs prior to blossoming. 

2. Kieffer pear fruit buds did not begin to differentiate 
until after mid-July. Initial flower parts appeared in 
August. Development was rapid during the fall up to 
mid-November when the flower buds in the cluster were 
fairly well advanced. Unimportant changes occurred 
during the winter. In late February and early March, 
changes were similar to those in the apple. 

3. Luster peach fruit buds began to form the first week 
in August. In about three months they were ready for 
wintering. After November 1 no noticeable change oc- 
curred until February, though cytological changes were 



BUDS 



71 




FIG. 52— RED CURRANT BLOOM 
CLUSTER 
Buds borne on last season's 
wood; leaves and bloom together. 
Young wood like this bears more 
profusely and larger fruit than 
does older wood. 




FIG. 53 
GOOSEBERRY 
Notice that the 
flowers are produced 
from over-wintering 
buds on wood of the 
previous season. 



occurring in the essential organs. 
Some buds showed division in the pollen mother-cells 
after mid-December; others had mature pollen grains in 
mid-January, a process complete at the end of that month 
when the buds were ready to unfold, which they did 
during February and early March. 

4. Plum fruit buds showed wider variation of develop- 
ment than those of apples. Among Japanese varieties 
they began to appear the second week in July ; among 
Americans, the first week; among hortulanas the first 



72 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 

week in September. In this last case (the variety most 
studied) the buds differentiated into flower parts during 
October and continued development until late December. 
During January development was only cytological. In 
early February this variety resumed active growth and 
by the end of the month had developed important changes 
in the essential organs. The flowers were then ready to 
unfold. 

5. Louis Phillippe cherry fruit buds began to form the 
first week in July, and by the close of the month the 
flower parts had begun to differentiate, but development 
proceeded slowly through summer and fall until late 
November. From then until February changes were 
cytological. In late February the essential changes had 
taken place. The buds began to swell rapidly and were 
ready to unfold in early March. 

6. The following general conclusions are deduced from 
the foregoing data : 

(a) Buds which produce the crop of bloom for the 
current year are formed the preceding summer; initial 
fruit bud formation has its beginning in June or July, de- 
pending on seasonal conditions and the kind of fruit. 

(b) The proper development of the fruit bud would, 
therefore, be influenced by factors brought to bear upon 
the tree prior to and during the period at which fruit 
bud formation takes place. In the practice of such or- 
chard operations as are designed to influence or control 
fruit bud formation it appears that such operations should 
be more effective in spring and early summer than at 
other stages of development. 

Among his conclusions J. H. Gourley reports the fol- 
lowing (somewhat condensed) :* 

70. Bud studies of Baldwin apple. — The formation 
of axillary buds on current season's growth is not 
uncommon with the Baldwin and many other varieties 
of apples. In alternate bearing trees we find a 

* Ne\v Hampshire Technical Bulletin No. 9. 




U M 
< 



4- E 



74 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 

heavier deposition of food material in the storage 
tissues when the tree has formed fruit buds. On the 
average we found about 4 per cent greater specific gravity 
of the twigs and branches in winter condition where fruit 
buds were formed [than where they were absent]. A 
much larger leaf area is produced in the "ofif" year than 
in the bearing year, amounting to 2.08 square inches 
more to the leaf in the trees studied. 

A second period of fruit bud formation the latter part 
of summer and early fall is evidenced by the fruit buds 
formed on the terminus of the second growth. 

No relationship could be traced between the rainfall of 
the growing season and the fruit bud formation in this 
experiment through a period of seven years. . . . The 
plots where the moisture ran the lowest during the period 
of fruit bud formation, coupled with good growing con- 
ditions earlier in the season, produced the largest number 
of fruit buds. 

Trees receiving cultivation, and cultivation with cover, 
greatly increased their capacity for fruit bud formation 
over trees standing in sod. 

The use of fertilizers in addition to cultivation has not 
as yet increased the fruit bud formation. 

71. Currants and gooseberries bear their fruit buds 
largely upon shoots which grew "last season" (Figs. 49, 
50). They also produce spurs which are often so short 
as to be mistaken for buds. Such spurs are, however, 
always on wood more than one season old ; in other words 
a wood bud last season developed a twig perhaps only % 
inch long and produced a terminal cluster bud on this 
tiny growth. This year the bud will not only develop 
leaves and fruits, but will extend more or less and pro- 
duce one to several cluster buds or wood buds or both 
kinds. Currant and gooseberry spurs, rarely grow more 
than 1 inch long, perhaps because the tendency of the 
plants is to develop fruit on young wood — wood of last 
season, and two or three seasons ago. Bushes that have 



BUDS 



75 



been allowed to shift for themselves show that spurs 
older than these ages lose the power to produce fruit and 
what fruit they 
do develop is of 
inferior size. 
Not only so, 
but the young- 
er shoots borne 
on old canes are 
shorter and 
bear fewer and 
inferior fruits. 

These phe- 
n o m e n a are 
partly due to 
the shoot itself 
— its age, its 
injuries by in- 
sects and dis- 
eases, etc., and 
partly to the 
crowding of 
young growths 
sent up from 
the base of the 
plant. For 
these reasons, 
therefore, fruit 
growers rarely 
allow canes to 
grow more than 
five years old ; 
in fact, many 
prefer to cut them out after they have fruited two or three 
times, or the three best new canes produced from the 
stool each season are allowed to develop so as to keep 
up a constant succession of young bearing wood. 




FIG. 55— RED RASPBERRY FRUITING BRANCH 
The erect stem grew last year and this year developed 
its branches from over-wintering buds. After fruiting 
the whole stem will die, therefore it may as well be cut 
out as soon as the fruit has been harvested. 



76 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 

72. The bramble fruits (raspberries, blackberries, dew- 
berries, etc.). like currants and gooseberries, develop new 
canes from their stools or crowns, as the starting points 
of their clumps are called, but these canes never live 
longer than two seasons. This year the cane grows and 
becomes more or less woody. It may develop few to 
several side branches. In some cases (St. Regis rasp- 
berry) flowers and fruits may be borne during the latter 
part of this summer, but normally not until next season. 
In other words, the resting buds normally push out in 
spring into shoots which terminate in flowers usually 
borne in clusters. (Figs. 55, 56). Thus the branches 
bear fruit on this season's leafy shoots produced from 
resting buds on last season's wood. 

Because the fruits are borne terminally the shoots can- 
not extend to form long canes, as in the case of the grape 
57). As soon as the fruit has ripened the canes begin 
to decline. They are of no further use to the plant be- 
cause they will die next winter. Therefore, many rasp- 
berry growers cut them out as soon as they have fruited ; 
others leave them until the following winter. The argu- 
ment in favor of the former practice is that they are a 
menace to the well being of the plant, since they interfere 
with air circulation and light, and are sources of infesta- 
tion both of insects and diseases. The argument in favor 
of cutting them out during winter is that there is then 
less danger of injuring the young canes by roughly pull- 
ing the old ones out, that the danger of infestation and 
the advantages of light and air are over-estimated, and 
that the pruning can be done at a season when work is 
not so pressing as during the summer. 

73. Grapes resemble the bramble fruits in one respect, 
but differ in another. Like the brambles, their leafy 
shoots, developed from resting buds on last season's or 
older wood, produce fruits this season, but unlike the 
brambles their fruit clusters are not terminal. Therefore, 



BUDS 



77 



grapes are not limited in either the age or the extent of 
their shoots. To state the case succinctly, grapes, except 
as noted below, bear their fruits on shoots developed from 
resting buds on last season's growth. As each shoot de- 
velops from a resting bud it unfolds leaves, opposite each 
of which is a cluster of grapes or a tendril. Whether the 
tendril is an aborted cluster, or the cluster a specialized 
tendril is a point concerning which botanists are not 




FIG. 56— BLACK RASPBERRY FRUITING LATERALS AND CANE 
The large branch grew from the ground "last" year and developed buds from 
which the leafy, fruiting branches developed "this" season. After the fruit has 
ripened the whole branch will die. It may be therefore cut out of the stool or 
hill as soon as the fruit has been gathered. 

agreed. The fact that one blends into the other is well 
shown in Figure 57 the lowest cluster being complete, 
the next one provided with a tendril, and the third being 
rather a tendril with a little cluster as a side issue. With 
knowledge that each resting bud on last year's canes is 
capable of producing two to five clusters of grapes, the 



78 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 

pruner can decide in a general way beforehand how he 
shall cut each cane in order to produce a given number 
of bunches to the vine, a crop of a certain weight to the 
acre, or of a certain quality. Seasonal conditions may alter 
his calculations made at pruning time during winter, but 
skillful pruners' calculations are close to the actual yields. 




FIG. 57— CHARACTERISTIC GRAPE SHOOT OF A LABRUSCA VARIETY 
This shoot developed from an over-wintering bud. Note that a tendril is 
opposite each leaf and that the lowest three of these tendrils have formed clusters 
of fruit. Observe also that two of these are part cluster and part tendril. In the 
axils of the leaves are buds which will form laterals. These rarely produce fruit 
in the northeastern United States because the season is too short. 

Usually only two to five of the lower buds on the canes 
produce clusters, but under favorable conditions shoots 
produced in the axils of this year's leaves may develop 
lateral canes which may produce and mature clusters of 
fruits. In some cases this method may be again repeated 
by secondary laterals produced on the first laterals, so 
that in a sense a cane would bear three crops of grapes 
during the same season. 



BUDS 



79 



74, Pruning vs. no pruning. — C. A. Keffer * draws the 
following conclusions from a series of experiments in 
pruning. 

Unpruned grape canes give a heavier total yield of fruit the first 
season neglected than do pruned canes, but the average hunch weight 
is much less. As the result of over-bearing much of the new growth 
will die, thus greatly reducing the next crop. 

The base bud in Concord, Niagara, Delaware and Brighton grapes 
gave the lightest weight of fruit. In Niagara and Delaware the 
average yield from the second bud was over twice as much as from 
the first bud, while in 
Concord and Brighton 
it was more than half 
again as much. In all 
four varieties the yield 
from the third bud was 
greater than from the 
second. Considering the 
first 12 buds (grape 
canes are seldom left 
longer than 12 nodes at 
pruning), the greatest 
yield is reached in 
Concord at the sixth 
bud, in Niagara and 
Delaware at the eighth 
bud, and in Brighton at 
the tenth bud. 

Arranging the buds 
In groups of three. 
Concord gives the best 
yield from buds 4 to 6 ; 
Niagara, Delaware and 
Brighton from buds 7 
to 9. The relative order 
of yield for the four 
groups is as follows : Concord, group 2, 3, 1, 4 ; Niagara, group 
3, 4, 2, 1; Delaware, group 3, 2, 4, 1 ; Brighton, group 3, 4, 2, 1. 

Concord is better adapted than the other varieties named to short- 
spur systems of pruning and training. In this variety it would prob- 
ably be more profitable to reduce the number of spurs to the vine 
and increase the length of the spur to six buds. Niagara and 
Brighton would seem to be most profitably pruned at the tenth and 
the twelfth buds. While there is less difference between the yields 
of buds 1 to 6 and 7 to 12 in Delaware, the indications favor the 
longer cane. 



^E^^^ 


^M 


n 


^^^^^■ipr^ 


^KM^^''/->^g^l 




^^ 


m 


jH^k^H 



FIG. 58— HOW QUINCE BEARS BI.OOM 
Flowers terminal on shoots of the growing sea- 
son. The main terminal of last year made an at- 
tempt to produce a fruit, as shown by the abortive 
mummy. Note that the buds below this mummy 
have produced new shoots with bloom buds. Thus 
the blooming wood is only about one month old 
and the shoot bearing it a year old. 



* Tennessee Experiment Station Bulletin 77. 



80 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



In long-cane systems, horizontal training is preferable to upright 
or diagonal training, as the lower buds of the cane are better 

nourished in the horizontal systems. 
The observations and conclusions 
herein indicated, being based on one 
crop, are not to be regarded as con- 
clusive, but rather as a preliminary 
report. 

75. The quince Fig. 58.— 
Last season the quince de- 
veloped resting buds which all 
looked alike. This spring the 
Inids that grow will develop 
leafy shoots, mostly short. 
Some of these shoots in favored 
positions will produce terminal 
blossoms. Hence the shoots of 
the quince, at least in the fruit- 
bearing parts of the plant, are 
irregular because the direction 
of growth is changed wherever 
a fruit is borne. This method 
of blossom bearing is called 
coterminal. because the flowers 
are at the tips of axial shoots 
of this season. 

Flowers are unquestionably formed 
the season previous to their expan- 
sion in quince, raspberry, blackberry 
and grape, notwithstanding the fact that no flower buds can be dis- 
tinguished in autumn in these plants. — [E. S. Gofif.* 

* Wisconsin Annual Report 1901. 




FIG. 59 
QUINCE METHOD OF FRUITING 
a, b, c, positions where fruits 
were borne in previous years. 
d. Last year's mummied fruit. 
Notice that the fruits are borne 
terminally and that new twigs 
(a, b) appear from lateral buds 
close to the points where the 
fruits were produced the previous 
year. 



4 



CHAPTER V 
PRUNING PRINCIPLES 

Horticultural literature is full of rules for pruning, but 
since many of these apply to specific plants, aims and con- 
ditions, and therefore may not apply to other plants, aims 
and conditions, the reader is likely to encounter many 
apparent contradictions. From the standpoint of prac- 
tice the student can become proficient only by working 
with a considerable number of plants, not merely speci- 
mens, but varieties and species, under widely varying 
environments. This is because no two specimens grow- 
ing even side by side are alike. The differences in habit 
shown by varieties of the same species are still greater, 
and those between species greater yet ; and all these dif- 
ferences are augmented or modified by the natural or 
artificial conditions under which the plants are growing. 
In order, therefore, to eliminate or at least somewhat 
reduce this confusion, the effort has been made to state 
the most important principles upon which rational prun- 
ing is based. 

76. Pruning aims. — The aims of pruning may be 
grouped under three ideals. Namely, the forester's, the 
landscape gardener's or ornamental horticulturist's and 
the flower or fruit grower's. So far as pruning is con- 
cerned the forester is mainly interested in securing tree 
trunks which shall be free from large knots and decay. 
He considers beauty of form and yield of fruit little if at 
all. The landscape gardener and the ornamental horti- 
culturist endeavor to have their plants attractive, either 
as individual specimens or as groups. If they consider 
the trunks of their specimens, it is not with a forester's 
eye to later profit, and if they think of the fruit at all it 
is for the sake of beauty. The florist and the fruit grower, 



82 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



like the landscape gardener, look to the health of their 
trees, shrubs and vines, but their main aim is the flower 
or the fruit. 

77. Pruning principles classified. — While these three 
men differ in their ultimate aims, the methods they em- 
ploy may be grouped under two main heads ; namely, (1) 

those which consider the health 
and the behavior of the plant — 
pruning proper, and (2) those 
which consider the develop- 
ment of size and form of the 
plant — training. While these 
principles are more or less dis- 
tinct, some of them neverthe- 
less blend into each other. They 
may be summarized in the fol- 
lowing table : 

A. Pruning proper 

1. Principles which deal with the 
removal of injured or unnec- 
essary parts. 

2. Principles which affect vegeta- 
tive vigor. 

3. Principles which affect flower 
and fruit production. 

4. Principles which change the 
wood-bearing habit into the 
fruit-bearing habit, or vice versa. 

B. Training 

1. Principles which limit the size 
or the form of plants. 

2. Principles which affect planta- 
tion management, as in the 

facilitation of tillage, spraying, harvesting, etc. 

3. Principles which underly training to special forms. 

The most important principles which come under the 
former of these heads (78 to 112) are deduced from the 
laws of plant physiology (Chapter II). The others are 
mainly based upon convenience, economy or experience. 
Familiarity with these principles will enable the operator 




FIG. 60— "DER END OF DER 
LIMIT" IN PRUNING 
This weeping willow wept sev- 
eral of its upper branches, so a 
tree butcher slashed out a lot of 
the top. When his ghastly work 
was done it was decided to "go 
him one better," so the main trunk 
was cut as shown, leaving the 
secondary trunk to its fate — for 
already the stump shows decay. 



PRUNING PRINCIPLES 83 

to approach a new variety or species with more confidence 
than if he have nothing but mere rule of thumb to guide 
him. 

PRINCIPLES STATED AND DISCUSSED 

78. /. In fruit production and in ornamental horticulture, 
pruning is of secondary importance to constant good man- 
agement of the plants; in forestry it is an incidental in tree 
grozving. 

This rule is axiomatic , for no amount of pruning will 
make for the thrift of the plants where neglect and abuse 
run riot. Furthermore, the man who neglects or abuses his 
trees is not the one who will prune, except as some branch 
happens to inconvenience him. Even then his pruning is 
more likely to deserve the name of tree butchery (Fig. 
61) than pruning. 

79. 2. A definite ideal, familarity zvith the basic prin- 
ciples, and a careful consideration of environment are es- 
sential to best pruning practice. 

This principle is also axiomatic, for unless the pruner 
know what he is aiming at he cannot hit the mark ; unless 
he apply the right principles he may work to the injury or 
the inferiority of the plant; and unless he study the environ- 
ment he cannot apply what principles he may know as in- 
telligently as he otherwise might. 

80. J. Climate and locality markedly influence both the 
necessity and the effects of pruning. Methods that succeed 
under one set of local conditions must be modified or avoided 
under others. 

Plants show considerable differences of development in 
different parts of the country, even in the same state, as 
noted below. Then, too, local influence must be considered. 
In regions where the winters are mild, say from New 
Jersey to Ohio and southward, wounds may in no wise injure 
the trees pruned in winter ; whereas where the winters are 



84 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



very cold and dry, as in the plains region of Nebraska and 
adjacent states, wounds made at that season may allow so 
much water to evaporate from the cut surfaces that the 
trees may suffer more or less seriously from winterkilling. 
In such regions it is advisable to avoid breaking the bark 
between mid-autumn and early spring. Damage may be 
wrought in hot and dry regions, as in Arkansas, Oklahoma, 




FIG. 61— THE TREE BUTCHER'S 
METHOD 

"Pruning" with an axe is a 
common tree crime in the neg- 
lected home orchard. Such wounds 
never heal over, but always shorten 
the life of the tree because decay 
will work its way into the heart 
wood of the trunk. Figs. 84 and 203 
show advanced stages of this work. 




FIG. 62 

UPRIGHT LIMB REPLACES 
HORIZONTAL ONE 

How this tree trunk became bent 
to horizontal is not known. The 
trunk after bending extended hori- 
zontally to the right, but as the 
vertical water sprout developed it 
robbed the prostrate trunk of food. 
The trunk shortly died, broke off 
and the stub slowly healed over. 



Arizona and bordering states, by sun scalding, which often 
follows severe pruning, but such pruning generally indicates 
that the trees have been neglected perhaps during several 
to many years. Doubtless in such regions less pruning is 
necessary than in more humid regions. 

While New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio and other eastern 
states with long extent north and south present considerable 
differences in pruning practice, a more striking instance is 



PRUNING PRINCIPLES 85 

to be found in the state of Washington,* where the Cascade 
mountains divide the state into two cHmates, a cloudy humid 
area to the west and a clear dry one to the east. In the 
humid area the abundance of moisture in air and soil, and 
the mild climate favor excessive wood development, often 
an annual growth of 6 to 10 feet of cherry and prune 
branches. The trees continue to grow late in the autumn and 
fully ripened wood is often difficult to secure. Severe winter 
pruning aggravates the evil of this excessive wood growth 
by making more and longer wood growths. To check 
growth, therefore, growers resort to summer pruning, shoot- 
pinching and even root pruning. The eastern or dry area 
is characterized by "a long, dry summer with a fierce, 
scorching sun and strong, drying winds . . . followed by 
a severe winter with fluctuating temperature and sudden 
changes. In portions of the fruit belt there is barely enough 
moisture in the ground to sustain a tree." Under these con- 
ditions trees "come to maturity at an early age, and produce 
fruit at a time in their lives when they ought to be making 
wood growth and establishing a strong, healthy frame for 
future usefulness." In this region severe pruning is done 
in winter so as to overcome the tendency for the trees to 
bear too young. Cherries fruit at two years ; pears and 
apples bear full crops at five or six. The winter pruning 
is done to increase w^ood and leaf growth. Summer prun- 
ing and shoot-pinching are avoided in the dry area. In the 
dry plains region, the tops of trees must be kept more dense 
than in moister regions. 

The fruit in these dry areas is less likely to suffer from 
shade than from exposure to sun and wind. In the east 
most orchardists keep the lower limbs up from the ground, 
to improve the flavor and the color of the fruit; in the 
central west this precaution is needless ; therefore, very low- 
headed trees are more popular than in the east, because the 
trunks and branches are believed thus to be better protected 
from sun scald. 

* Bulletin 25, Washington Experiment Staton. 



86 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



81. 4. Pruning does not alter the natural habit of plants, 
for pruned plants resume their normal habit zvhen left to 
themselves. 

Ordinary observation will show that each plant — speci- 
men, variety and species — has an individuality which dis- 
tinguishes it from every other plant. No matter what way 
or how much it may be pruned, therefore, it will seek to ex- 
press that individuality in the new growth which follows 

pruning, and its success 
will be largely propor- 
tional to its vigor. 
Trees which naturally 
sprawl, like Winter 
Nelis pear and Rhode 
Island Greening apple, 
cannot be made to 
grow erect by mere 
pruning, and those nor- 
mally erect, like North- 
ern Spy and Bartlett, 
cannot be made to 
droop. Rational prun- 
ing, therefore, seeks 
merely to correct faults 
and to maintain the 
natural form of the 
tree. 

The proof of this rule is seen in the wilds and in orchards 
which formerly were trained in more or less artificial ways, 
but which have latterly been neglected. In nature trees 
which have been blown over or bent and held down by other 
trees falling upon them frequently develop new leaders 
(Fig. 62, 63) ; in neglected orchards the formal outline of 
the artificially trained tree may often be traced through the 
surrounding younger growths which make a top more or 
less strikingly different in form. 




FIG. 63 
LEADER RENEWED IN BROKEN TREE 



1 



PRUNING PRINCIPLES 87 

82. 5. Plants of the same species or variety vary in habit 
according to their age, hence must be pruned more or less 
differently at diff'erenf ages. 

The tendency for young plants is to make vigorous erect 
growths rapidly. As they more and more nearly approach 
the height at which the variety may be said to have reached 
maturity the more does the rate and extent of growth de- 
crease. Nothing perhaps has so marked an influence in this 
respect as fruit bearing. The Kiefifer pear, one of the most 
striking of instances, prior to fruit bearing, shoots upward 
rapidly and forms an erect tree; but when fruit bearing be- 
gins these long limbs bend over and spread the tree often 
widely. Hence it is necessary to bear Principle 5 in mind so 
as to avoid injuring young trees by injudicious pruning. 
Later when the trees begin to bear or are in full bearing the 
treatment may be considerably changed to suit the new type 
of growth. 

83, 6. Severe pruning of the branches favors or increases 
vegetative grozvth (i. e., zvood production) ; hence it may 
be employed to help invigorate weak plants. 

From plant physiology (Chapter II) it is evident that 
every plant which is growing normally has a perfect balance 
between its roots and its top. The root supplies the top 
with crude food materials and the top supplies the root with 
elaborated plant food. Thus each furnishes the other with 
nourishment. As the roots increase in number and extent, 
therefore, the larger the quantity of crude food taken in the 
larger must become the leaf development and consequently 
that of the whole plant. 

Should a considerable amount of the top be removed , for 
instance, by breakage due to an overload of fruit, or ice. by 
storm (Fig. 94), by excessive pruning or by such tree 
butchery as telegraph, telephone and electric linemen and 
others too often practice (Figs. 64, 65). the amount 
of crude food taken up by the roots will be distributed 
in larger proportion to the remaining parts, unless 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



the root area be also reduced by root pruning. In other 
words, removal of the top upsets the balance between root 
and top. The result is that the remaining parts make greater 
vegetative growth than they normally would make and often 
water sprouts (Fig. 65), and suckers may be developed in 
greater or lesser number and size. Hence gardeners have 
formulated the rule that weak-growing shrubs should have 
their tops pruned severely, but strong ones only lightly. 
Should severe pruning become necessary to correct the form 



■i-V - ■■ 




/^ 




i 


Ih/T 


K X /%^5fM 


s 


fcX^ 


mf^^ 


i 


^S4- ^»m 




i 


^^— 




FIG. 64— ONE OF THE WORST FOES 
OF TREES IS THE "LINE MAN ' 



FIG. 65— TREE'S ATTEMPT TO 
OFFSET BUTCHERING 



or to train a plant, under-stimulation of the top may be 
avoided by doing the work piecemeal, say a quarter to a 
third at a time, with an interval of a week to perhaps several 
months between, depending upon the character of the plant 
being pruned — herbaceous ones, such as tomatoes grown 
under glass, requiring very frequent, perhaps even semi- 
weekly removal of small quantities of foliage, and trees de- 
manding not more than one or at most two prunings a year. 

84. Injurious effects of pruning on the growth of tree trunks are 
reported by German investigators who say the average thickness of 



PRUNING PRINCIPLES 89 

the limbs of many trees pruned in pyramidal form was S.4 centimeters ; 
pruned by removing only dead and crossed branches ti.a ; and the 
unpruned trees 11.7. Contrary to the general belief that regular 
pruning seems to make stockier trees, these experiments incHcate 
that strong pruning prevents the rapid growth of the stem rather 
than furthers it. 

85. Pruned Tomatoes.— In West Virginia,* L. C. Corbett found 
that tomatoes pruned after the fruit set produced a greater number 
of ripe fruits to tlie plant up to September 1 than did unpruned 
plants, but the total yield from each plant for the whole season was 
less. Of the various methods of pruning tomatoes, the single stem 
method gave somewhat earlier and larger fruits, but lessened the 
total yield considerably. 

86. English experiments in apple pruning. — At Woburn, England, 
S. U. Pickering has conducted pruning experiments for VI years. 
J-ie reports that trees dug up and weighed show that the less a tree 
is pruned the larger and heavier it becomes. At the end of the 12 
years those trees not pruned were 20 per cent heavier than the 
moderately pruned ones, whereas the heavily pruned trees were 16 
per cent lighter. Since the difference in weight between the un- 
pruned and the moderately pruned trees is greatly in excess of the 
wood removed by pruning, it is concluded that pruning- does not 
increase the actual size of the tree, but even results in less new 
wood being formed. When similar branches on the same tree were 
pruned to different extents, it was found that the less the pruning 
the greater the number, length and weight of new shoots formed 
and the increase in girth of the original branch. 

The reduction in pruning appears more marked as regards the 
crop. With dwarf apple trees, during the first five years, the crops 
from unpruned trees were more than twice as great as from those 
hard pruned. These differences were increased during the second 
period of five years, and at the end of the twelfth year the unpruned 
trees yielded nearly three times as much as the moderately pruned 
ones, while the hard-pruned ones had practically no crop at all. 
(Only one variety was in fruit for comparison during the twelfth 
year.) 

Similar results were obtained with trees of .'iS and 80 varieties of 
crab and paradise stocks, respectively. The trees were not allowed 
to overbear, and it is claimed that the size of fruit obtained from 
trees pruned to different extents was approximately the same, hence 
the values of the crops were proportional to the weights. Ct)nfirma- 
tive evidence of the antagonism of pruning to fruiting was obtained 
by counting the fruit buds formed on similar branches of the same 
tree, which was cut back to different extents. All of the above re- 
sults refer to healthy, vigorous-growing trees. 

With dwarf apple trees 15 years old the author finds that hard 
pruning results in an increase of the new wood formed, but that 

* Bulletin 49. 



90 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



the crops are even more reduced by the pruning than in former 
years. This result is said to apply also to trees which have become 
stunted, as from root injury in transplanting. 

Since hard pruning has been shown to be the correction for fruit- 
ing, it is concluded that freshly planted trees should be cut back 
hard to prevent stunting by precocious fruiting. 
With trees which were not cut back until the end 
of the first season, the average size of the leaf 
was 24 per cent less and the new wood formed 
45 per cent less than with similar trees cut 
back when planted. The ultimate result was 
found to be that trees not cut back until the 
end of the first year continued to form wood 
in subsequent years, and the crop borne by 
them during the first 10 years was only one- 
third of that borne by those which were cut 
back when planted. 

Experiments on apples, pears and plums 
show that the date of cutting back a freshly 
planted tree is immaterial, provided it is done 
before growth begins. If delayed until after 
the growth is well started the season's growth 
is much reduced. The results were the same 
when the lopping was done during the dormant 
period. Lopping toward the end of May or a 
few weeks after growth started, resulted in a 
less growth during the year. This was more 
than compensated, however, by an additional 
growth during the succeeding season. 

While it appears to be established from 
these experiments that the crops are larger 
and the growth of the tree greater in propor- 
tion as the pruning is reduced, the experi- 
menter believes that another series of experi- 
ments might demonstrate that a certain 
amount of pruning may be good and even lead 
to better results, especially with certain va- 
rieties of apples which differ largely in their 
habits of growth and require different treat- 
ment. 

The general conclusions reached are that 
prunings should be reduced to the lowest 
possible limits consistent with the formation 
of a tree of sufficient sturdiness to bear its 
crops with safety, which in most cases would 
mean, besides the cutting back after planting, 
a gradually reduced pruning for the first four or five years. Prun- 
ing after this time should consist merely in the removal of interfer- 
ing branches and unripened wood. With precocious varieties or 




FIG. 66 
YEARLING GROWTH 
CUT BACK 
To cut back one- 
year-old growth does 
not materially change 
the direction of the 
limb, yet it keeps the 
fruit-bearing area low. 
Note that the upper- 
most buds have made 
strongest growth. 




PRUNING PRINCIPLES 



91 



very weak growers the pruning should he greater or continued 
longer. More pruning is required with standard than with dwarf 
trees, since with the standard it is desirable to produce a compact 
head before heavy crop production begins. 

87. /. Severe pruning of the roots reduces vegetative 
groivths (i. e., ivood production) ; hence it may he employed 
to induce fruit fulness. 

This is the converse of principle No. 6. In a sense it is 
equivalent to poor feeding; for when the tops of plants are 
poorly supplied with crude sap 
they tend to become fruitful. 
It does not matter whether the 
lack of food be due to poor soil 
or to scanty supply of crude 
sap taken up by the roots; the 
results are the same. 

The principle finds its most 
common application in the un- 
avoidable reduction of root area 
in the digging of nursery and 
other plants for transplanting. 
No matter how carefully such 
work is performed, an enor- 
mous amount (often more than 
90 per cent) on the feeding 
area (12) is cut off, thus re- 
ducing the supply of food 
which can be sent up to the 
tops. To offset this unbalanced 
condition and to distribute the 
reduced supply of food effec- 
tively, the top must be reduced 
very considerably. Some plant- 
ers advocate removing not less than three-quarters of the 
previous year's growth, and in many cases all but one 
strong bud on that growth. This tends to establish a new 
balance between root and top. 




FIG. 67 
HOW CROOKED BRANCHES 

ARE MADE 
Cutting back second-year growth 
produces crooked branches, as the 
latter growth will not be erect. 



92 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 

Root pruning is largely practiced by those nurseries which 
make a specialty of specimen plants several years old. It 
is performed by passing a large U-shaped knife from end 
to end of the nursery rows beneath the trees so as to cut 
the long roots at varying depths. In order to secure best 
results, the trees are set in check rows, so the second cutting 
may be done at right angles to the first. This method com- 
pels the plants to produce many short fibrous roots in a 
clump close to the base of the stems. The chief advantages 
of the practice are ( 1 ) that the specimens may be trained 
to any desired form in the nursery, where they may remain 
for several years, all the while becoming more valuable ; 
and (2) the extensive root system, limited to a small area, 
is not seriously enough injured in digging to make the cutting 
of the top necessary to re-establish a balance. 

Root pruning also finds employment in growing dwarf 
fruit trees and trees trained on walls and in special forms, 
such as espalier (283) and cordons (282). Unless the 
work is regularly done the trees are almost sure to de- 
velop unduly and to frustrate the objects sought. Its 
practice is mainly limited in America to amateur plantations. 

At Harper-Adams Agricultural College* (England) root and 
branch pruning experiments during several years stimulated tree 
growth considerably, the effect being most marked on the weakest 
growing variety tested, Cox's Orange Pippin. The most fruit buds 
were formed on the unpruned trees. 

In an effort to make six espalier pear trees develop fruit buds, 
R. L. Castlet root-pruned two on both sides, two on one side only, 
the other two not at all, in January and February. Nothing special 
was noted that year, but the following year the trees pruned on one 
side produced a fair crop of good fruit; those severely pruned had 
very few fruits, while those unpruned were still unfruitful. One 
of the latter trees pruned later gave results similar to the earlier 
root-pruned trees. 

88. 8. Suckers and water sprouts are produced h\ local 
or general disturbance of plant equilibrium. The time of 
year -ivhen the pruning is done has less influence upon their 

* Report 1910, Page 52. 
tjour. Royal Hort. Soc. (London) 29. Nos. 1-3, Pages 146-160. 



PRUNING PRINCIPLES 



93 



formation than does the extent of the pruning and the 
vigor of the plant pruned. 

As already noted under Principle No. 6, increased vegeta- 
tive growth results from excessive pruning of the top, and 
water sprouts and suckers may be developed to a greater 
or lesser extent. \Mien the plants are below normal vigor 
and when the root area is smaller than the top really needs, 
plant food will not be elaborated in sufficient quantity to 




FIG. 68— ONE WAY HORIZONTAL BRANCHES ARE KILLED 
When watT sprouts develop vertically from horizontal branches the parts 
beyond die soonor or later. In this case the main branch beyond the erect ones has 
died. One water sprout was cut off (see scar at base of middle one) to permit 
taking a less confused photo. 

produce water sprouts and suckers ; for these growths are 
dependent upon ample if not excessive food for their de- 
velopment. Hence season of pruning cannot be a primary 
influence in their production. They may develop as the re- 



94 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



suit of ringing (98 to 103), girdling, notching, twisting or 
bending the stems, because in such cases the flow of elab- 
orated sap has been checked and the food thus held back 
must find an outlet above the constriction. 

Doubtless the time of year when the pruning is done has 
some influence upon the production of such growths. Com- 
mon observation shows that they are produced mainly dur- 
ing spring. Rarely do they appear after midsummer, be- 
cause by that time the plants 
are ripening up the tissues 
rapidly formed early in the 
season, there is little or no 
food to spare and in general 
growth has ceased. Ex- 
perience also teaches that 
plants pruned in mid- 
summer rarely produce 
water sprouts or suckers 
the same season because of 
the cessation of growth just 
discussed. Even during the 
following spring the num- 
ber and size of those which 
do appear will be smaller 
than when pruning is done 
during the dormant season. 
This is because the plants 
have ample time in which to make readjustment to the 
changed conditions in their tops. 

The usual way in which any excess elaborated food is 
utilized in such cases is in the increased development of 
twigs already formed. Note the discussion as to summer 
pruning in eastern Washington (80). The suggestion to 
be drawn from this principle is that the fear of water sprout 
and sucker production should never influence the pruner. 
These growths are largely the result of previous neglect, 




FIG. 69— POORLY "PRUNED" PEAR 
The ends of the horizontal branches 
were cut off, with the result that a lot 
of "sap-pumping" growths developed. 
No care was given these new growths, 
or they would not have grown nearly 
so long and spindling. They have, 
however, begun to bear fruit, as in- 
dicated by the short, stubby spurs. 



PRUNING PRINCIPLES 95 

l)ut later attention should prevent their becoming a menace 
to the plant. 

89. Renewal pruning of apple and pear. — E. S. Gofif* points out that 
as apple trees increase in age the size of the fruit tends to heeome 
smaller. This he helieves to be due to the increased difficulty of 
sap circulation in the fruit-bearing twigs. An instance is pointed 
out in which water sprouts on part of an apple tree were allowed 
to develop in place of a large limb that had been I^roken off. The 
fruit in this part of the tree was much larger than on the remaining 
older parts. The question is therefore raised whether the size of 
fruit on old apple and pear trees cannot be maintained by a careful 
system of renewal pruning. 

90. p. Since each plant part is individual (39), competi- 
tion among the parts may make one part thrii'e at the ex- 
pense of another. 

As elaborated plant food is formed it passes to growing 
and storage tissues (20). Toward the close of the season 
much of it is stored in or near the buds which are to start 
growth the following spring, when, with crude sap, it pushes 
out into shoots, leaves or flowers. There is thus competition 
among these various parts for a share of both kinds of food ; 
but only those favorably placed or, through some unex- 
pected circumstance, such as a constriction, similarly 
favored, secure an adequate supply of each. Then other 
things may give certain twigs the lead and the inferior ones 
a check. Hence each shoot draws upon its parent branch 
both for elaborated food and crude sap. Nay, more, 
each may steal from its fellows, as when very lush shoots, 
such as water sprouts and suckers, are produced. These 
shoots are seldom furnished with sufficient leaves to supply 
their own needs, so, being watery, they draw elaborated 
plant food from nearby twigs and limbs. For this reason 
careful fruit growers remove these shoots while small be- 
tween mid-spring and early summer, so as to direct the 
plant food where it will do the most good. The sprouts, 
being green, are easily broken off at the time mentioned. 
The slight wounds formed, being small, readily heal in a 
few weeks. 

• Am. Card. 23, No. 285, Page 302. 




FIG. 70— TWENTY-YEAR-OLD CATALPA PLANTATION 
Note that the trees are practically erect and almost branchless below. They 
have reached up to the light, and the lower branches have died because of laelj 
of light. They have either broken off or been cut. 



PRUNING PRINCIPLES 97 

91. 10. The uppermost buds, especially on young plants, 
tend to groiv most vigorously. 

Ordinary observation shows, and philosophy explains 
(Chapter III), that, due to the fight for air and light among 
the twigs, growth is from the uppermost buds. This na- 
tural method may be suppressed or emphasized according 
to the way the plants are managed. Shortening the annual 
growths (106) checks development and so docs the forma- 
tion of constrictions (98). These two methods each deserve 
separate discussion. 

92. //. By shortening the tzvigs upon zvliich thev are 
borne, axillary buds may be more fully developed than would 
jiormally be the case if the twigs were not shortened. 

It stands to reason that when part of a shoot is removed 
the food intended by the plant for the whole shoot will 
reach the remaining part in relatively larger supply. But 
this principle connotes still more. It deals largely with the 
practice of heading-in. a process which tends to broaden 
and thicken the top of the plant so treated. One or other 
of two objects may be secured by heading-in; namely. (1) 
the correction of an undesirable habit of growth and (2) 
the encouragement of fruit production (Principle 17, below). 
Each of these objects may involve the consideration of one 
or more of the following factors: (a) The grower's pref- 
erence as to the way the trees shall be trained, (b) the dis- 
tance between the trees, (c) the nature of the trees, es- 
pecially whether standard or dwarf, and (d) the rate of 
growth. 

a. On the first point, the grower's preference, probably no 
one man can exactly meet the ideas of another man. It is 
usually a case of "what he likes, he likes." When a thick, 
round-headed tree is the aim, shortening-in must be prac- 
ticed ; when an open centered one, it must be shunned, unless 
possibly before the tree comes into bearing. 

b. When trees are set close together, just as when their 
tops are dense, the eflfort to secure air and light tends to 



98 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



induce long slender growth (Fig. 70). The same is true 
in very humid climates (80). Shortening to keep the tree 
heads within bounds may be done when the growths attain 
lengths of 3 or more feet in a season, but since mature and 
bearing trees rarely make such excessive growths, the prac- 
tice is usually needed only with unfruitful or young trees. 
Excessive growth in mature trees generally indicates too 
rich, moist soil, or excessive pruning; hence the remedy is 
to check growth by making the proper 
correction, or to have recourse to sum- 
mer pruning, as practiced in Washington 
(80). The proper correction for excess 
moisture may be drainage or the use of 
a thirsty cover crop, such as clover or 
hairy vetch ; that for too great fertility, 
a "nitrogen-consuming" cover crop, such 
as oats or rye ; that for excessive pruning 
is to avoid winter pruning as much as 
possible. Heading-in during winter will 
only make matters worse. 

c. Shortening-in the annual growths of 
dwarf trees is done to prevent the de- 
velopment of tops out of proportion to 
the roots. This feature deserves special 
treatment. (Chapter XVI.) 

In all shortening-in it must be re- 
membered that increased pruning in the 
interior of the top is necessary, especially 
when the work is done early in the growing season. For 
often lateral growths, especially on summer-pruned grapes, 
prove a great annoyance. The method is useful in helping 
to secure sturdier branches and to develop frame limbs. It 
need be employed less annually as the trees approach ma- 
turity, when it may cease altogether. 

So far the discussion has considered the style of heading- 
in usually practiced by gardeners and amateurs who seek 
specially fine specimens of fruit. A simpler method prac- 



» 

A- 






'^■**. 








■ . 


m^ii'^,^^.^ 


■ , f 





FIG. 71— TYPICAL 
PASTURE - GROWN 
WHITE PINE 
Note that, though 
50 feet high, the 
trunk is branchy 
nearly to the ground. 
It will make inferior, 
knotty and tapering 
lumber. 



PRUNING PRINCIPLES 99 

ticed more largely by the commercial fruit grower is to cut 
out whole branches, one, two or more years old, when these 
extend beyond the general outline form and desired size of 
the tree. In all such cases the cuts are made at the points 
where the branches to be removed join older or larger 
branches. Clean, close cuts are made. In a few years the 
vacant spaces fill up with bearing wood. This plan is 
especially popular in the management of stone fruits. 

d. The rate of growth is a factor included in the discussion 
in paragraph b above. 

93. 12. Neither kind nor extent of pruning influences 
fruit bearing as much as does the condition and the estab- 
lished habit of the plant. Quiescence rather than stimula- 
tion or spasmodic effort favors the fruit-bearing habit, 
which is influenced by pruning, as zvell as by other treat- 
ment, more in young than in old plants. 

Doubtless this principle is the most important of the score 
discussed in this chapter, not because it emphasizes pruning 
so much, but because it teaches the importance of continuous 
good care of the plants. This matter of continuous good 
care cannot be over-emphasized. But it is not with these 
phases of plant management that this book is concerned : 
pruning is the subject in hand. 

Even casual observation will show that plants, even of the 
same variety, differ more or less widely in habit, especially 
in the habit of fruit bearing. So noticeable is this fact that 
certain fruit growers and nurserymen favor so-called "pedi- 
greed trees," these being propagated from trees of known 
performance. Doubtless part of the phenomenal prolificacy 
is due to individuality, but probably a large part is also due 
to some unrecognized factor which favors fruit bearing, 
so that the case may be more one of plant nurture than is 
supposed. 

But let us set aside such cases and consider only average 
ones. When once plants begin to bear, the bearing habit 
should be maintained. Nothing will favor this more than 



100 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



judicious, continuous good management. Whatever seri- 
ously upsets the equilibrium so established will almost surely 
also upset the bearing habit. In cases where the bearing 
habit has never been developed, either due to neglect or 
improper management, experiment may enable the grower 
to discover a remedy such as giving a different type of till- 




FIG. 12 
BRANCHES OF LOW-HEADED TREES TEND TO ASCEND AT ACUTE ANGLES 
This drawing from a photograph shows that trees started with low heads have 
branches that approach the vertical. Compare with high-headed trees (Figs. 3, 22, 23. 

age, a change of plant food, a better type of disease and 
insect control or a more or less radically different style of 
pruning. 

A neglected orchard will furnish a typical case. Suppose 
the tillage, spraying and other factors just mentioned to be 



1 



PRUNING PRINCIPLES 101 

what they may; let us consider only the pruning. In this 
orchard it is evident that the first aim of pruning must be 
to overcome the neglect rather than directly to establish 
fruit bearing. Heavy pruning may be necessary and much 
new wood may be produced (81, 83, 88), and the tree may 
take one or perhaps several years to adjust itself to the new 
order, but the rational treatment that should have been given 
while the trees were young will win in time. All will be 
lost, however, if the grower lets up, for the orchard will 
cjuickly return to its former undesirable condition. 

This last statement shows why orchards severely j^runcd 
only once in several years are so notoriously barren. They 
are literally prevented from establishing the bearing habit 
by being thrown out and kept out of balance. Annual good 
care is necessary to secure good crops. Were the wholesale 
pruning spread out, then, over several years, a little and 
often an equal total amount of wood might have been re- 
moved and yet the trees might have been brought into bear- 
ing and kept actively fruitful. 

One of the most common forms of disturbance of equili- 
brium is over-bearing. It is almost invariably succeeded a 
year later by the reverse condition. So common is this 
phenomenon that we have "full years" and "off years." 
Extremes tend to follow each other until the alternate year 
bearing habit becomes established, perhaps so firmly that it 
cannot be corrected, at least in old trees. Since the habit 
is most pronounced in long-lived plants, such as apple and 
pear, the conclusion seems safe that the habit started during 
the early years of the trees, and has been emphasized more 
and more as the trees grew older. Though pruning may 
have some effect in changing such a condition, more es- 
pecially as affected by principle No. 18, it is only one of the 
factors that may be influential. 

It is well understood that a check to growth favors fruit 
bearing, but this bearing habit may easily be lost unless 
efforts are made to keep it up. While slow-growing and 



102 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 

moderate-sized trees are often very fruitful, they are not 
necessarily so. Many instances might be mentioned of trees 
which have grown both very rapidly and very large, and 
yet have come into bearing young and been remarkably 
fruitful, perhaps each year, for a long series of years. Such 
cases, probably without 'exception, will be found to be due 
to rational management from the start or, at least, from the 
time when the fruit grower began such management. 

94. Apple pruning investigations.* — Four years ago West Virginia 
Experiment Station began a test involving various amounts of dor- 
mant pruning in one orchard. The following spring this experiment 
was greatly extended to include six orchards in various parts of the 
state and 515 trees ranging from one to 25 years of age. In spite 
of unfavorable circumstances some features stand forth clearly and 
seem to warrant a preliminary report. 

We will group the orchards and discuss two phases of the proj- 
ect; namely, the effect of amount of pruning and season of pruning 
upon vigor, growth and fruitfulness. In most cases the following 
series of plots were obtained : 1. Heavy dormant pruning. 2. Mod- 
erate dormant pruning. 3. Light, or corrective dormant pruning. 
4. Heavy dormant and early summer pruning. 5. Moderate dormant 
and early summer pruning. 6. Early summer pruning. 7. Repeated 
summer pruning. 8. Midsummer pruning. 

The early summer prunings were made at first during the last 
week of May, but for the last two years were made about June 15. 
The midsummer pruning was made from July 1 to July 15. The 
repeated summer pruning was simply a combination of the early 
and midsummer prunings. 

95. Amount of dormant pruning.— Where varying amounts of dor- 
mant pruning alone were considered, we would expect that the 
heavier the pruning the longer and heavier would be the new growth 
(83). This was invariably the case. The question then arose as to 
whether the average length and diameter of the new growth is a 
true index of vigor. We are constrained to believe that this is not 
always the case, at least upon small trees. 

The heavy pruning greatly reduced the number of buds and con- 
sequently reduced the number of shoots which started. It seems 
reasonable to believe that, though fewer in number, the shoots of 
the heavily pruned trees actually measure up as great as those of 
the lightly pruned back, perhaps even greater. To test this point, 
two blocks were selected in one orchard, and one was heavily 
pruned, while the other was lightly pruned. Annual measurements 
were made of the new growth and the prunings. 

* W. H. Alderman in Proceedings of the Society for Horticultural Science, 
1915, Page 54. 



PRUNING PRINC'IPI.ES 103 

The data obtained show that except at the very first, neither in 
total leni;th of growth nor in increase of trunk (hanieter, have the 
heavily pruned trees made as satisfactory a gain as the lightly 
pruned ones. The only possible deduction from the ligurcs is that 
continued heavy pruning acts as an inhibitor of growth rather than 
as a stimulant. In must be borne in mind, however, that no account 
was taken of the fact that the average diameter of the yearly 
growth of the heavily pruned block was greater than of the lightly 
pruned block, so that the real difference in amount or weight of 
actual tissue produced was not as much as indicated in the tabic. 
It is signiticant to note in this connection that in all the orchards 
the lightly pruned trees are noticeably larger than the heavily 
pruned ones. With few exceptions the increase of diameter of 
trunk has been in inverse ratio to the amount of wood cut off. 

Thus far we find that heavy pruning forces a rank growth, al- 
though it retards, as a whole, the production of wood tissue. There 
is presented an interesting question of whether heavy pruning and 
oarticularly heavy heading back, tends to make more stocky that 
portion of a branch produced one or more years previous to the 
pruning. In other words, can a long slender branch be made more 
stocky by vigorous heading in at the extremity? 

96. Effect of heading-back on, stockiness. — On the young trees on 
which measurements were made to test this point the results were 
not as clear cut as could be wished, yet they indicate on the whole, 
that heavy heading-in tends to thicken the branch more rapidly 
than does light pruning land this may be traced] even as far down 
as that segment of branch produced four years previously. This 
is not well correlated to our own results regarding the increase in 
trunk diameter as related to pruning. We frankly admit a high 
probable error in this part of our data and do not lay undue em- 
phasis upon this phase. It must be substantiated by further work^ 

In the matter of fruitfulness, interesting correlations were se- 
cured. In the one middle-aged orchard in the test, heavy pruning 
proved to be a stimulant to fruit production, whereas in the younger 
orchards, it acted as an inhibitor. 

In another six-year-old orchard the only fruits produced were 
upon the lightly pruned block, and in a five-year-old orchard the 
lightly pruned block averaged 8.5 per cent, and the heavily pruned 
block 50 per cent. In young trees heavy pruning delayed fruit bear- 
ing and light pruning encouraged it. but in older trees that had been 
bearing for some time and w^ere in only fair vigor at the beginning 
of the experiment, the vigorous pruning stimulated fruit production. 
Heavy pruning also produced strong new shoots, but did not in- 
duce as great a total amount of new growth as light pruning, nor 
did it produce as great an increase in diameter of trunk or size 
of tree. 

97. Season of pruning vs. vigor and fruitfulness. — We will now 
pass on the influence of pruning at various seasons on the vigor 
and fruitfulness of the trees. In every case either heavy or mod- 



104 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



erate dormant pruning stimulated a greater growth than any of 
the summer prunings, and the reduction in vigor was less in the case 
of early summer pruning than with either repeated summer or mid- 
summer prunings. 

The foliage is a very good index of the vigor of a tree. A 
careful study of leaf size, color and number was made in the Lup- 
ton and the Grimes Golden orchards. In all cases the blocks that 




FIG. 73 

BADLY DEVELOPED TREE HEAD. TOO MANY LIMBS CLOSE TOGETHER 

Never allow a tree head to develop in this way. Such over-crowding can be prevented 

by correct, early pruning. It is difficult to remedy later. 

had received summer pruning bore a paler or yellower foliage than 
those pruned in the dormant season. This difference in color was 
so distinct that there could be no mistaking the summer-pruned 
blocks even at a distance. 

It is clear [from the data secured] that summer pruning caused 
a great decrease in the size of leaf, number of leaves to the tree 
and in the total leaf area on the tree. If we further consider that 
these leaves are deficient in chlorophyll, as evidenced by their light 



PRUNING PRINCIPLES 105 

color, we may readily see how greatly summer pruning has decreased 
the efficiency of the food factory of the plant (29). 

Much of this loss of vigor we expected, but we also expected a 
compensating increase in fruitfulness. In the old orchard the data 
are conflicting. In the young orchards we have attempted to corre- 
late summer pruning with early bearing, but the correlation is nega- 
tive. Merely corrective dormant pruning far exceeded all forms 
of summer pruning in bringing about early bearing, and in some 
cases the moderate and heavy dormant-pruned blocks produced 
more bountifully than did the summer-pruned trees. The writer 
has serious doubts as to the wisdom of deliberately impairing the 
vigor and the vitality of a tree to throw it into bearing. 

98. Jj. A check zvJiich docs not impair the health or the 
strength of a plant tends to fruitfulness. 

Too severe pruning, over-tillage, a too liberal .supply of 
nitrogenous plant food in the soil, whether due to over- 
tillage, over-manuring, or the too constant use of leguminous 
cover crops, all may produce the same effect ; excessive 
wood growth at the expense of the fruiting habit. All but 
the first of these may be corrected by reverse practices, as 
already noted (80, 81, 83). The bad effects of heavy prun- 
ing and how to correct thetn are also discussed in the same 
sections. 

Other methods of checking growth, mainly of very local 
application, depend upon checking the flow of elaborated 
plant food; for, as already noted (Chapter II), this food, 
when in abundance, tends to fruit bud development, whereas 
abundance of crude sap tends to increase wood development. 
Among the ways adopted to secure this result are notching 
the stem below a bud to encourage the formation of a fruit 
spur, and above a bud to secure a long woody twig. Shallow 
girdling and ringing — i. e., no deeper than the cambium — 
favor fruit bud formation above the cut ; when through the 
cambium and the young wood the girdle favors the pro- 
duction of woody shoots below it, but generally results in 
the death of the upper parts of the stem so cut. When the 
girdle is placed lower on the branch than the leafy area, 
such twigs as may develop must do so upon the supply of 
elaborated food stored in the tissues below the wound. If 



106 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 

this supply be small, no shoots at all may start. When 
heading-in is employed woody shoots generally start most 
strongly from the bud nearest to the wound. Those which 
start from lower buds are usually less and less strong as 
they are more and more remote from the cut. 

99. Stripping trees. — A. W. Drinkard, Jr.,* reports an experiment 
in which trees were stripped by the removal of strips of the bark 
yi to Vz inch wide from the trunks, beginning near the ground and 
extending up to, and frequently above, the main branches. Several 
of the main branches were stripped for 12 or IS inches. Three to 
five strips were taken from each tree. The strip was first marked 
by a knife point. Then the bark could be readily peeled from the 
tree. 

Trees stripped on April 23 made good growth and held their 
leaves until late in the fall. The stripping wounds heal over very 
well during the growing season. The operation does not completely 
cut off the movement of water in either direction, but must inter- 
fere with it in some measure, and the operation must administer a 
shock more or less severe to the growth processes. Trees stripped 
May 31 made excellent growth and the wounds healed well. When 
the trees were stripped on June 23 it appeared that the growth was 
noticeably interfered with, and the stripping wounds did not heal 
rapidly. This appears to be too late to secure the best results from 
the process. The removal of strips of bark from the tree trunks 
does less injury to the trees than does ringing, and gives promise of 
greater utility in practice. 

100. Ringing experiments.— Drinkard also reports experiments! in 
spring pruning accompanied by ringing. The trees showed very little 
if any eiifect from ringing at various seasons after the spring prun- 
ing had been performed. The formation of fruit buds was not 
noticeably stimulated, being about the same as in case of check trees. 
The amount of fruit set and the quantity harvested was not es- 
sentially difi'erent from that of the check trees, and the wood growth 
was about the same as normal. The trees in this series carried a 
dense green foliage through the growing season, equal to that of 
the check trees. It seems clear that the influence of spring pruning 
in discouraging the formation of fruit buds is sufiicient to overcome 
any stimulative effect which otherwise might have been derived from 
ringing. 

Maryland§ performed an experiment by ringing crab apple trees 
to induce fruitfulness. He found that ringing or girdling increased 
fruitfulness, but he considered this operation as a measure that 
could be applied under only special conditions. 

* Technical Bulletin 5, Virginia Experiment Station. 
t Ibid. 
§ Mass. Hatch Exp. Sta. Bui. 1. 



PRUNING PRINCIPLES 107 

Leclerc du Sablon* ringed three or four-year pear trees before 
vegetation started and a second lot after the lirst shoots had formed. 
At intervals of two months thereafter trees from each group were 
dug up and analyzed. The roots of the pears ringed in February 
contained more reserve material than did tlie check trees not ringe i, 
while the stems contained less. After April, however, as a result of 
assimilation by the leaves, the roots of the ringed trees were much 
poorer in reserve material than those of the control trees. On liie 
whole the experiment is believed to show that toward the end of 
winter and the beginning of spring the reserve material goes from 
the roots to the stems. From May to October the current of elab- 
orated material is from the stems toward the roots. 

Hedrickf and his assistants have reported unfavorably on ringing 
tomatoes and chrysanthemums. The tomatoes showed a loss in 
fruit production and in the leaf and root systems of the plants. The 
chrysanthemum plants also suffered. 

Paddock§ carried out experiments in ringing grapevines. Tiie 
process generally hastened maturity of the fruit, depending on sea- 
son, variety and conditions of vine. On the whole the operation is 
devitalizing and care is required in its application. 

101. Ringing fruit trees.ij:— The object of ringing fruit trees is to 
induce unproductive trees to set fruit. Briefly stated, the theory of 
the operation is : That the removal of a band of bark through the 
cortex and bast of a plant, at the period of most vigorous growth, 
does not hinder the upward passage from the roots to the leaves of 
unassimilated sap through the outer layer of woody cells, but does 
prevent the distrilnition, through vessels in the cortex and inner 
iDark below the wound, of assimilated food (20). The effect of this 
action is to cause an extra amount of reserve material to be stored 
in the upper parts of the plant for the production of fruit buds. 

Ringing plants consists in the removal of a band of bark through 
the cortex and bast of the trunk. The term girdling is frequently 
used to designate this operation, but since this name is usually as- 
sociated wirh wounds made more or less deeply in the wood [and 
since the operation] results in ultimate death, as when a tree is 
girdled by mice or girdled for the purpose of killing, it is unfortu- 
nately chosen. French writers use the phrase, "decortication an- 
ntilaire" (annular decortication or bark removal), which is more 
exact than either ringing or girdling. The object of ringing is to 
induce and increase fruitfulness. 

The object of the experiments was to determine, if possilile, the 
extent to which fruit trees may be ringed without permanent injury 

* Sur les effets de la decortication annulaire, Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci. (Paris), 
140; 1553-1.S55. 1905. 

7 N. Y. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 2S8. 

§ N. Y. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 151. 

+ Condensed excerpt froin G. H. Howe's Bul!etin 391 of the New York Agri- 
cultural Experiment Station. 



108 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



and in what degree, if at all, the operation induces and stimulates 
fruitfulness. 

Ringing should be performed early in June or July, at which time 
the bark peels readily from the wood, leaving the cambium in a 
succulent condition. The success of the operation hinges upon the 
fact that at this season occurs the greatest cambial activity, which 
readily facilitates the rapid formation of new bark, and at the 
same time prevents exhaustive evaporation of plant juices. Any 
attempt to practice ringing when plant growth is sluggish or dor- 
mant always results in the death of the tree, since the cambium, 
being then firm, is torn from the woody cylinder during the opera- 
tion. A common pruning knife (Fig. 112) or a sharp pocketknife 
is a suitable instrument for performing the operation. 

From the data secured, it would appear that ringing tends to 
hp-<'f» injurious effects upon apple trees, and that the wider the 




FIG. 74— EFFECTS OF RINGING YOUNG TREES 

1. One-inch ring of bark freshly removed from apple tree. 2. New bark over 

1-ineh ring. 3. New bark over 3-inch ring. 

bands the more serious will be the injury. It may be stated that 
the trees used were exceptionally strong and uniform in vigor and 
were therefore possibly in a better condition to withstand wounding 
than are average orchard trees. All of the trees making a weak 
growth showed smaller foliage and less wood production. The 
foliage, likewise, lost its color and fell from the branches four to 
six weeks earlier than that of normal trees. Two to six sprouts 
sprang up at the lower edge of the wound on nearly every tree. 
This would indicate that nature was endeavoring to provide as- 
similated food for the roots since passage of such food from the 
upper portion of the trees had been cut off. 

No gain in productiveness resulted from ringing. The few 
fruits which were produced showed no differences in size or color 



PRUNING PRINCIPLES 109 

from the normal. Clearly, ringing these trees seriously injured their 
health without increasing fruitfulness. Examination of the root 
systems showed that, as a rule, the ringed trees had smaller, shorter 
roots (nearly approaching hairy roots) than the unringed trees. 
Trees low in vitality had extremely small root systems. 

Early one June, 50 Baldwin trees three years from setting, were 
ringed, bands 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18 and 20 inches wide, re- 
spectively, being removed from groups of five trees each. At the 
same time 1.5 trees of the same variety and age in another block 
were ringed, groups of five trees each being ringed with 1-inch 
wide rings at the surface of the ground and 4, 8, 12, 16, 20 and 24 
inches, respectively, above the ground. In most cases new bark 
started to form, but at the end of the season not a single tree had 
made a perfect formation of new covering. Several trees in each 
lot were dead and all others lacked vigor. All foliage dropped about 
five weeks earlier than from adjoining unringed trees of the same 
age. The spring following the ringing but 10 per cent of the trees 
of both lots started growth, and this so weak that death resulted 
before midsummer. While these two lots of trees were less vigorous 
than the seedlings of the previous experiments, they were representa- 
tive of average trees of the commercial orchard. (Fig. 74.) 

From these experiments it is clear that the first ringing of the 
seedlings influenced fruitfulness and caused them to set a large 
crop of fruit. The experiments with the Baldwin trees, however, 
showed different results. These trees, lacking the vigor and hardi- 
ness of the seedlings, failed to survive a single operation. 

In some of the western states orchardists frequently resort to 
the ringing of their young trees to induce them to bear fruit, with 
very good results. Under most favorable conditions, young, vigorous, 
thrifty trees ought to withstand and respond to one operation, but 
subsequent ringing is devitalizing and exerts practically no beneficial 
influence. From the experiments at this station, the practice of 
ringing apple trees to induce and increase productiveness seems 
too drastic a practice for the good of the trees. Even if a slight 
increase in fruitfulness is brought about it seldom off^sets the injury 
to the tree. 

Ringing was also done on pears, cherries and plums with much 
the same, but more injurious results. It is, therefore, concluded 
that the results obtained from these experiments are not favorable 
to ringing fruit trees as a general practice. Under some conditions, 
for a limited time, a more favorable outcome may be expected. 
Hardy, vigorous, young apple trees may readily undergo a single 
ringing and be benefited thereby, but subsequent operations 
are injurious. Trees lacking vigor are often seriously injured by the 
practice. The deleterious eff^ects of the treatment have generally 
been so marked upon various plant organs as to render the opera- 
tion exceedingly hazardous. There seems to be no regular or 
systematic increase in fruit production. The gains do not offset 
the losses. 



110 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 

102. Pruning, ringing and stripping vs. fruit bud formation. — In 

summarizing his findings in a series of experiments, A. W. Drink- 
ard, Jr., says :* 

The experiments, which extended over two years, were made to 
study the effects of pruning, root pruning, ringing and stripping at 
various seasons on the formation of fruit buds on dwarf apple 
trees. Spring pruning of the branches at the time of growth re- 
sumption had a tendency to discourage the formation of fruit buds, 
but there was apparent stimulation of wood growth in the trees. 
Summer pruning of the branches the latter part of June, when fruit 
buds normally begin to show differentiation, checked wood growth 
the year in which the work was done, and greatly stimulated the 
formation of fruit buds, as was shown by the bloom and the crop 
of fruit the following year. Fall pruning of the branches in No- 
vember did not materially influence the crop of fruit buds, but 
caused vigorous wood growth the following year. 

Severe root pruning at the time of growth resumption in the 
spring (April 23), at the time the leaves were well developed 
(May 31), and at the beginning of fruit bud differentiation (June 
23), when accompanied or preceded by spring pruning of the 
branches, produced some stimulation in fruit bud formation. An- 
other series of experiments showed that the spring pruning did 
much to offset the effects of root pruning, which treatment retarded 
wood growth in the current and the succeeding years ; the leaf area 
of the trees was reduced and the trees showed injury from the 
treatment. 

Root pruning on April 23, at the resumption of growth in the 
absence of spring pruning, did not give as much stimulation to fruit 
bud formation as the same treatment applied at later dates. Ap- 
parently this was too early for the full effects to be felt by the trees. 
Root pruning when the foliage was fully developed, and when the 
fruit buds began to become differentiated, in the absence of spring 
pruning of the tops, produced very marked stimulation in fruit bud 
formation. At these three times the treatment retarded wood 
growth and foliage development in the current and the succeeding 
year, and the trees suffered from the treatment. 

Ringing at various seasons, when accompanied or succeeded by 
spring pruning of the branches, produced no noticeable stimulation 
of fruit bud formation. At the time when growth was resumed in 
the absence of spring pruning, it did not stimulate fruit bud forma- 
tion. The treatment was given too early. At the time the foliage 
was fully developed, in the absence of spring pruning, it gave the 
best results ; however, when the treatment was given at the time 
the fruit buds began to become differentiated, there was some stimu- 
lation of fruit bud development. 

Stripping at various seasons when accompanied or preceded by 
spring pruning, had no stimulating effect on fruit bud formation. 

* Ibid. 



PRUNING PRINCIPLES 



111 



The effects of stripping were offset by those of spring pruning. 
Stripping at the three seasons already mentioned, in the absence of 
spring pruning, stimulated fruit bud formation uniformly. 

Not enough is yet known about the operations of root pruning, 
ringing and stripping for the formulation of rules by which prac- 
tical fruit growers may utilize these operations advantageously in 
their orchards to increase the fruitfulness of their trees. 

103. 14. A constriction or a girdle on a tzvig or a stem 
re)ids to increase and elongate growth from the bitds nearest 
belozv and to thicken the 
tzvig immediately above 
(Fig. g6). The bud 
nearest aboz'e a constric- 
tion or a girdle nsiially 
becomes more or less 
quiescent and often 
fruitful (Fig. 95). 

This principle is based 
upon the upward move- 
ment of crude sap and 
of elaborated plant food 
(20). The influence 
which a constriction ex- 
erts is largely propor- 
tional to the degree of 
the constriction. When 
only the tissues outside 
the cambium are 
aff^ected. the buds and 
other parts above the 
constriction become 
filled with elaborated 
plant food because this 
material cannot go low- 
er down the stem ; when 
the alburnum or sap- 
wood is affected the up- 
ward flow may be 
checked completely, in which case the parts above will die 




FIG. 75- 



-SHOOT GROWTH FROM STUBS 
LEFT IN AlAY 



Almost as bad as winter pruning In 
duction of increased quantities of 



the pro 
wood. 



112 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



sooner or later. This latter is equivalent, then, to heading- 
in, a process which favors lateral bud development (106). 

Among the methods employed for producing constrictions 
are girdling by wire, cord or a single knife cut through the 
bark to the cambium, and ringing. Bending the shoots, 
usually downward, from their normal direction of growth 

impedes the sap flow 
without damaging the 
tissues in any way. 
Twisting the stem pro- 
duces the same effect, 
but it ruptures more or 
less severely the internal, 
if not the external 
tissues, 

104. 75. Obstructing 
the sap flow either up or 
dozvn the stems by bend- 
ing, tivi sting, notching, . 
girdling, ringing, etc., is 
not properly a pruning 
principle, but a method 
of training. 

The employment of 
obstructions is a very 
petty matter when com- 
pared with the large 
question of consecutive 
good care and even the 
general subject of prun- 
ing. Tt has mainly to 
do with amateur gardening where individual specimen fruits 
rather than large commercial yields are the aim. Its 
employment is mainly confined to trees trained on walls or 
trellises or in special forms, such as cordons and espaliers. 
In such cases the grower must count buds, develop fruit 




FIG. 7&— SHOOT GROWTH FROM WINTER- 
PRUNED STUBS 
Unsatisfactory way to prune shoots in thick 
interior of tree. Growth becomes worse than 
before. 



PRUNING PRINCIPLES 



113 



Spurs and other twigs where required and observe many 
other finicky details. 

With grapes some of these considerations may also be in 
order, but the pruning of the vine dififers from that of trees 
mainly because of the natural habit of the plant. Two 
classes of ideas are employed in grape pruning; one which 
merely removes unnecessary wood, the other which seeks 
to train the vine to some desired form. Since the various 
forms differ widely, the number of buds left on individual 
canes also varies widely. Some 
of the principles of pruning, 
therefore, play a less prominent 
part in grape growing than in the 
management of other fruits. 

105, i6. Fruit bearing is more 
or less influenced by the time of 
year when pruning is done ; sum- 
mer pruning favors fruit hud 
formation, whereas winter prun- 
ing tends to branch bud and 
wood formation. 

Plants pruned during the dor- 
mant season promptly endeavor 
to make up their losses by de- 
veloping increased growths dur- 
ing the following spring, but 
plants pruned between late 
spring and late summer usually 
have sufficient time to readjust themselves before the season 
closes, so there is little or no excessive development of wood 
the following spring. One reason for this effect is that 
summer pruning considerably reduces the leaf area, thus 
reducing the quantity of elaborated plant food. Hence the 
process tends to weaken rather than strengthen growth. In 
support of these statements it may be pointed out that 
suckers and water sprouts are far more numerous after 




FIG. 77 
EFFECTS OF AUGUST PRUNING 
These poor results are the best 
secured from August pruning ex- 
peritrents to reduce wood and in- 
crease fruit spurs. 



114 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 

pruning during the dormant season than after pruning in 
summer. 

When pruning merely checks wood production without 
noticeably reducing the strength of the pruned plant, it usu- 
ally favors fruit bearing; hence the value of summer prun- 
ing of whatever kind, but especially the shortening of ex- 
cessive annual growths. The best time to do this is when 
the moisture in the soil becomes somewhat reduced in early 
summer, but after the twigs have attained their full length. 
If done then the probability is that the remaining buds will 
have enough time to fill with food and yet not have suffi- 
cient time to develop lateral shoots. In actual practice ro 
set rule can yet be laid down, certainly not one based upon 
a mere date, nor can any set rule be given for the amount 
of summer pruning that may be done with safety. Even 
trees may be summer-pruned so severely that they will dis ! 

The only safe guide is personal experience based upon 
such factors as climate, character of soil, species, variety, 
and even upon the behavior of the individual plant. Even 
then the newness of the practice so far as the individual 
plant is concerned will influence the judgment in one di- 
rection, whereas the accustomcdncss of the plant, if I may 
coin a word, will influence in perhaps the opposite direction. 
Plants accustomed to a certain style of handling from the 
start will perhaps stand more, though they may not need 
more pruning than those new to the practice. In general, 
plants trained in special forms give best results when sum- 
mer pinched or pruned. 

Generally neither fruit buds nor fruit spurs are formed 
on the pinched parts the same seasons as the pinching is 
done. When the summer shortening-in is done early enough 
for this there is increased risk of getting undesirable lateral 
growths. If the operation is performed after the leaves 
have reduced their activity, these growths will rarely occur. 
During recent years considerable study of bud formation 
has been made, but so far the conclusions have brought forth 



PRUNING PRINCIPI.ES 115 

little that has not been known for a lung time from the 
standpoint of practice. Investigators, even if they have 
not greatly enlarged our knowledge, certainly deserve great 
credit for undertaking such tedious and i)ainstaking work 
as that discussed above. To a large extent, their findings 
support pruning principles based upon plant physiology. 

106. //. Fniitfitliicss may be induced by sliortciiiiig ex- 
ccsshr tivig growth, thus favoring the development of fruit 
buds and spurs. 

Since the vigor, the age and the method of handling the 
tree and other local factors must be considered, therefore no 
rule can be laid down as to how often or how much short- 
ening-in may be done to secure productiveness. In propor- 
tion as the practice tends to reduce production of woody 
l^arts it favors the formation of fruit buds ; but when carried 
beyond this point it may be equivalent to a severe pruning 
and therefore may actually favor wood development. 

Fruit trees that are producing 1 to 1^^ feet of new growth 
annually may have these growths reduced 25 to 35 per cent. 
This statement is general enough to apply to cases other than 
the development of fruit buds. It includes such other aims 
as indirect fruit thinning, preventing dwarf trees from ex- 
ceeding the development of their stocks, maintaining the de- 
sired form and size of trees to suit the ideal of the grower 
or the area available. So far as fruit bud development is 
concerned, shortening-in of this kind may have small effect 
if done only occasionally or spasmodically. 

The shortening-in of terminal twigs favors the develop- 
ment of fruit spurs in the upper but interior part of the tree 
tops, spurs which sooner or later develop blossom buds 
(Fig. 173). The practice, fairly common in the commercial 
production of dwarf pears, is perhaps properly one rather 
of training for convenience than of pruning proper, and it 
is doubtful whether or not productiveness, or shall we say 
income, is enhanced by it. To be sure, the fruit may be 
borne in a much more limited area than in the case of trees 
not so treated. 



116 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 

So far as the writer knows, no definite experiments have 
been tried to settle whether such trees are as productive as 
others not so treated, but grown under as nearly identical 
conditions as can be secured. One conceded advantage 
shortening-in frequently has: when judiciously perfomed 
it tends to early maturity of the trees and consequently 
precocity of bearing. This, however, finds its chief applica- 
tion in amateur practice ; for commercial use it is of com- 
paratively minor importance. 

107. Pruning at various seasons. — Stimulation of wood growth 
does not necessarily mean increase in the total mass of the tree. 
From their studies of this question, the Duke of Bedford and Pick- 
ering* have concluded that hard pruning does not ultimately re- 
sult in a larger tree than does light pruning. In later experiments t 
they found that the less a tree is pruned the greater is its wood 
growth, except in the case of old trees, on which the amount of 
wood is increased by hard pruning; the hard pruning is antagonistic 
to fruiting, this rule applying to both young and old trees. 

108. Summer pruning experiments performed by Drinkard,§ at 
the time the fruit buds began to form, stimulated the development 
of fruit buds. These experiments give some evidence on the prop- 
osition, often expressed by horticulturists and practical fruit 
growers, that summer pruning increases the fruitfulness of apple 
trees. No doubt the degree of increase in fruitfulness resulting 
from summer pruning bears direct relation to the condition of 
the trees, the season and the time and severity of the operation. 
But the physiological principle involved is not clear. It is obvious 
that severe summer pruning reduces the foliage area, interfering 
with transpiration and photosynthesis. The balance between the 
root system and the branch system is suddenly disturbed. The 
nutrition of the various organs in the tree is changed in some de- 
gree by summer pruning. 

Quinn,:j: who has described the various methods employed in 
summer pruning — disbudding, pinching, thinning, heading-in, and 
fracturing or twisting of branches — found that these operations are 
effective in greater or lesser degree for conditions in Australia. 
Dickens** found from careful experiments that summer pruning 
gave better results than pruning during the dormant season. By 
means of summer pruning, he was able to induce fruitfulness on 
10-year-old apple trees which had previously borne very little fruit. 

* Woburn Experiment Fruit Farm, Second Report, 1900. 
t Ibid. Seventh Report, 1907. 

S Technical Bulletin 5, Virginia Experiment Station, 
t Jour. Agr. and Ind. South Australia, Fig. 3: 368 to 378. 1899. 
** Kan. State Agr. College Exp. Sta. Bui. 136. 



I 



PRUNING PRINCIPLES 117 

Gouiny* states the buds on very vigorous trees may be transfonned 
into fruit buds ])y defoliation — that is, the removal of the supporting 
leaves from certain buds — but not all the Inids on the branch ; how- 
ever, he considers this operation very limited in its application and 
not to be recommended for general practice. 

Fruit growers in England have long practiced summer pruning. 
The consensus of opinion and experience of both practical fruit 
growers and scientists, given some years ago, is that summer pruning 
is uncertain in its effects, depending upon soil, climate, varieties of 
fruit and time of operation, that specific objects may be accom- 
plished by the process, but that the operation is of doubtful prac- 
ticability. 

109. Summer pruning of apples.— In a recent bulletin! Batchelor 
and Goodspeed give the following condensed conclusions : Apple 
trees, pruned to induce a spreading habit by cutting back the terminal 
growth to lateral branches, produced a greater annual twig growth 
than trees similarly pruned, except that the terminal growth was 
untouched. Trees pruned during the dormant period and also dur- 
ing the summer, produced a greater annual twig growth than trees 
pruned during the dormant season only. Trees pruned during the 
dormant season produced a greater total twig growth than the un- 
pruned trees. 

Rubbing the water sprouts out of the center of the tree from 
time to time during the summer, had little or no influence on crop 
production. These shoots are removed much more readily and 
cheaply, however, during this season. 

Trees pruned to a spreading form by cutting back terminal growth 
to lateral branches, in the case of both Jonathan and Gano [the two 
varieties experimented upon], averaged a smaller production to the 
tree than trees allowed to assume a more natural upright growth. 
The ratio of the total pounds of marketable fruit for the two va- 
rieties during four years is 86 for Jonathan and 91 for Gano from 
trees pruned to spread, as compared with 100 per cent each for 
trees allowed to take natural shape. The summer-pruned trees 
averaged less marketable fruit to the tree than either the winter- 
pruned or the unpruned trees. 

The winter-pruned Jonathan trees produced more fruit than the 
unpruned trees. The winter-pruned Gano trees produced less fruit 
than the unpruned trees. Summer pruning in this orchard has 
proved neither profitable nor successful in increasing crop yields. 

Although the investigation is only in its first stages, there seems 
to be a correlation between regular bearing and summer pruning. 
Tn the case of the Gano trees the most regular bearing trees were 
the unpruned ones. Summer pruning throughout a period of tvvo 
months between the third week in June and the third week in 
August produced much the same results. 

* Recherches sur les bourseons des arbres fruitlers. Ann. Sci. Nat Bot. { Paris), 
de Serie 1 : 135 to 246. 1905. 

t No. 140 Utah Agricultural College Experiment Station. 



118 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 

The above results may apply only to young, vigorous bearing 
apple trees of Jonathan and Gano when planted on a rich, sandy 
loam, free from seepage, in a semi-arid climate, with an abundance 
of irrigation water available. These varieties under the above con- 
ditions show a tendency to overbear soon after reaching a productive 
age, and are usually thinned. Summer pruning reduces the area of 
fruit-bearing wood, the vitality of the tree and the productivity. 

110. i8. Tivig and small branch pruning may he used to 
thin the fruit and thus also favor regular annual bearing. 

In order to apply this rule intelligently, it is essential that 
the pruner be familiar with the way in which the variety 
he is handling produces its blossom buds (Chapter IV). 
Otherwise, he may remove desirable parts and actually work 
against his own interests. Fruit thinning by the removal 
of twigs and buds during winter is generally a more ex- 
peditious and economical method than summer thinning of 
the actual fruit. It can be done by more intelligent labor 
when time is less at a premium and, therefore, when better 
care can be given to the trees. Its greatest drawback is the 
uncertainty as to the number of bloom buds that will expand, 
how many may be frozen after they have opened, how many 
fruits may fail to reach maturity. This uncertainty is ob- 
viously greater in March than in July! Still, many fruit 
growers practice it more or less systematically mainly be- 
cause of its economy. Generally they wait until danger of 
frost injury has passed so as to reduce the uncertainty as 
much as possible. 

The fact that thinning the fruit conserves energy is 
strikingly illustrated by the experience of J. Q. Wells of 
Shortsville, N. Y. An orchard, mainly of Baldwin apples, 
was 18 years of age, but had never borne a crop when Mr. 
Wells took possession. Beginning a year or two after, how- 
ever, it has borne 20 excellent crops during 22 years, the 
two failures being due to frost at blossoming time. This 
is the most striking argument for thinning the author knows. 
To be sure the achievement is partly due to the consecutive 
good care the orchard receives, but it is largely due also 
to the systematic thinning. If such is the record with the 



PRUNING rRIXCIPl.ES 119 

I'aldwin apple, notorious for its "off years," what may not 
be accomplished with other varieties ? 

So far as the author knows, Mr. Wells practices only 
summer thinning; but winter thinning produces similar re- 
sults, for it conserves energy. This conservation can be most 
easily noted in apples and pears because of the spur method 
of fruit bearing. In these fruits there is normally an alterna- 
tion of cluster bud and branch (spur) bud development. 
This is due to the demand made upon the spur for food to 
develop the fruit, a demand that usually prevents the forma- 
tion of a blossom bud on the spur during the same year as 
a fruit is developed on that spur. While the fruit is being 
developed the spur has only enough surplus energy to de- 
velop a branch (spur) bud near the union of the fruit stem 
with the spur. To induce annual fruiting, the trees must 
either be extra well fed or the fruit must be thinned. The 
former is generally not as certain as the latter. 

One way in which annual bearing may be induced is to 
remove all the fruits while young from some of the spurs 
and only the inferior ones from others. Thus fruit buds 
should develop on the empty spurs and none on the bearing 
ones, and an alternation of fruit bearing would tend to be 
developed on each set of spurs ; but one set would bear in 
the even years and the other in the odd years. Thus the tree 
should never overbear in any one year, and the grower 
should always have at least a partial crop. This method, if 
applied w'hile the trees are young, requires less work than 
may at first appear, because after once getting a start it will 
at least partly take care of itself. Whether mature trees 
with set alternate year bearing habits can be made to bear 
annually is a question yet to be decided. IMuch of the suc- 
cess of the plan will depend upon the character of care given 
the orchard. 

\\'hat has been said under this heading as applying to 
thinning of the fruit applies with equal force to the thinning 
of the fruit-bearing areas of the trees. 



120 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 

111. zp. Large zvounds heal according to conditions, most 
important of which arc the kind and the vigor of the plant, 
the length and position of the stubs, the smoothness or 
the roughness of the cut surfaces, the JiealtJi of the wood 
and the time of year zvhen made. 

This principle needs elucidation in a chapter by itself 
(Chapter VI). Yet a few words may be here used to ad- 
vantage in summarizing the discussion. From the stand- 
point of healing alone, large wounds heal most readily when 
made just before the growing season opens because the ex- 
posed tissues have but a brief time to dry out, and the cam- 
bium cells, very soon after the wounding, become active. 
However, the vigorous or feeble condition and the species 
and perhaps the variety of the tree, the character and posi- 
tion of the wound and the influence of many other local 
factors may affect the healing to a greater or lesser extent 
either favorably or unfavorably. 

112. 20. Wound dressings, zvhich do not injure the grozv- 
ing tissues, zvhich are antiseptic and durable, and zvhich thus 
give physical protection, may prevent or check the entrance 
of decay, but they do not hasten healing. 

This principle receives separate discussion. (Chapter 
VIII.) 



CHAPTER VI 

HOW WOUNDS HEAL 

113. Natural wounds in the bark, such as those caused 
by growth in girth, usually heal quickly and without 
danger to the life of the tree. From what has been said 
(Chapter II) it is apparent that the bark must necessarily 
become tighter and tighter over the w^oody cylinder as 
the cambium develops new cells. This internal pressure, 
which often reaches 50 pounds to the square inch, causes 
the rupture of the bark in countless exogenous trees and 




FIG. 78— HOW BARK BECOMES ROUGH BY SPLITTING AND HEALING 

shrubs, and we thus see the wrinkled, contorted or scaly 
stems characteristic of old trees, such as oak (Fig. 78). 
hickory and sycamore. The splitting is due to the non- 
expansion of the outmost or dead layers of bark: the 
wounds are healed by the development of new cells from 
below. 

114. Bark-bound trees. — In some cases, for instance, 
neglected orchards, the bark may become so tough, hard 



PHH 




— 



T 



w 



iiiiiUfiKH 



z 



t 



■flMMi 



FIG. 79— CROSS SECTIONS OF WHITE PINE (2x4) SCANTLINGS SHOWING 
BRANCHES BURIED BY TISSUE 
Left column, reading down: 1, living branches; 2, larger ones; 3, where four 
limbs started together while the plant was very small, horizontal ones showing 
dead ends; 4, similar case; 5, living branch which started when the tree at this 
point was only two seasons old; 6, similar to No. 5. Right column, reading down: 
1, oblique cut across dead stub; 2, ditto; 3, oblique limb buried but cut across; 
4, dead limb being buried; 5, similar but at different angle; 6, limb which started 
when the trunk at this point wfs probably six or seven years old, had a good chance 
to grow for a few years and then was killed. 



HOW WOUNDS HEAL 



123 




FIG. 80— CROSS SECTION O? 
PINE SCANTLING 

Notice oblique grain of wood in 
lower knot and the bark which the 
trunk has tried to cover. Also 
notice the grain in the main stem 
bent out of shape by knots above 
and below. Compare Fig. 81. 




FIG. 81 
DEAD LIMBS BEING BURIED 
The lower limb has been cut 
more obliquely than the upper. 
The trunk is making a desperate 
attempt to cover the stub, but the 
dead bark in Fig. 80 (a crois sec- 
tion) shows how poorly it is suc- 
ceeding. 



and dense that the trees are 
often said to be "bark bound." 
Good cnhivation, fertilizing, 
pruning and cultural care 
may or may not promote ex- 
pansion and rupture of the bark and consequent good health. 
Where these methods fail fruit growers may effect a change 
for the better by softening the bark with washes of lye or 
soap, or by slitting. This latter process consists in cutting 




FIG. 82— HISTORY OF A STUB IN SIX CHAPTERS 
Reading down (left) 1, outside bark section showing extension of wood from 
trunk to try to heal in the stub rotted out where the hole is left; 2, stub rotted out, 
leaving hole. Decay of wood occurred after the tree was cut; 3, wood nearer hart 
of tree. (Right) 4, decayed knot in place; 5, decayed spot beside almost hea'thy 
knot; 6, knot in healthy condition except for checks — decay not progressed so far. 
In the lower right-hand corner of each section is shown a second knot left by a 
stub. In 4, 5 and 6 note holes caused by borers. Decay often enters by such means. 



HOW WOUNDS HEAL 

the bark to 



125 




FIG. 83— HOPING STILL I 
This oak tree keeps the bark alive around the 
decaying stub in the "hope" to protect itself from 
the decay creeping nearer the trunk every year. 



through 

the cambium layer, but 

no deeper, the cut ex- 

tencHng parallel witli 

t h e direction of 

growth on the trunk 

and the main limljs. 

Very large limbs and 

trunks may have two 

or three slits made at 

equal distances from 

each other. This op- 
eration is always performed in spring just as growth begins. 

When made the cuts are scarcely visible, but in a few days 

their edges will have spread, perhaps half an inch apart. 

Soon new cells will develop 
from the cambium and the 
wound be closed with new 
tissue. In no way does this 
healing process differ from 
that following the splitting 
of bark in forest and other 
trees. (Compare 99.) 

115. Limb connections 
with the trunks of trees. — 
Cross sections of tree trunks 
made at certain points will 
shov/ how limbs are pro- 
duced and how they leave 
records of their develop- 
ment and decline in case of 
injury (Fig. 79). When a 
limb starts while the trunk 
is small its initial point will 
be found close to the center 

FOURTHro-FTH'E%R™NK LOST BY of the truuk, and as it grows 

?R\'E^'BE\Tsrp'pfEs'?NNjAiy"' it wiH enlarge, and its base 




126 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



be covered with the annual rings of the trunk. Gen- 
erally such limbs are only one year younger than the 
trunk at the point where they are produced, but some- 
times a latent bud may develop several years later than 
the liml) produced in normal time. In such cases the 
initial point of the limb will not be from the central por- 
tion of the trunk, but from one of the annual rings more 
or less distant from the center of the tree trunk. When- 
ever logs are cut into boards the positions of the limbs 
on the trunks are shown by the knots (Figs. 80, 81, 82). 
The history of the limbs is in- 
dicated by the condition of the 
knots. When the knots form a close 
union with the trunk the limb dur- 
ing the life of the tree was healthy 
— at least at the point where cut 
(Fig. 82). When the knot is sur- 
rounded by a black ring, and es- 
pecially where it is loose and can 
be knocked out, it shows that the 
limb was dead at the point where 
the board was cut from the trunk. 
Farther from the center of the trunk 
there may be only a hole where the 
limb has rotted back into the trunk 
(Fig. 82). 




116. Natural and artificial wounds 
contrasted, — From what has been 



FIG. 85— FLICKERS NEST 

A cut was wrongly made 
at the elbow. Decay spread 
down the heart wood. An- 
other stub just below the 
center also decayed and a 
flicker dug out a nest. This 

is a common thing in badly said iu the previous paragraphs it 

pruned orchards. , -ii t ^ ^ i 

may be rightly concluded that 
man may take advantage of and improve upon na- 
ture's methods, especially in the making of wounds, 
for if he will make wounds in such a way as to favor 
healing rather than decay, he will increase the longevity 
and the usefulness of the tree he so prunes, When 



HOW WOUXDS HEAL 



127 



the mere surface of the stem is injured, new cork 
cells will develop from the inner bark ; when the cambium 
is reached and when the wound is deeper than the cam- 
bium, new tissue is produced by the cambium and the 
attempt made thus to heal and bridg^e over the wound. 
Outer bark cells and wood cells beneath the cambium are 
helpless to perform any healing function, because they 
are lifeless or nearly so (Chapter II). In other words, 
when a limb is broken or cut off, or when it is exposed 
by peeling off the bark, the heart wood cannot heal itself 
but must rely upon the cambium. 

117. Callus. — The tissue which is formed by the cam- 
bium and the inner bark over a wound is called a callus. 
Always such growths begin 
around the edges of the wound 
and gradually or rapidly grow 
toward the center. In no case 
does the callus have any physio- 
logical connection with the 
heart wood of the original 
trunk or of the limb broken or 
cut off (Fig. 83). The callus 
cap has often been likened to 
the metal or glass cover placed 
over a fruit jar. 

118. The purpose of the 
callus is to serve as a protection 
to the tissues beneath. Part 
of this protective function is to 
check loss of moisture from the 
surface of the wound, but its 
more important role is to prevent decay by protecting 
the wood from weathering and. most important of 
all, the entrance of rot-producing fungi and bacteria. 
Once such organisms gain an entrance into the heart 
wood, the limb and the tree so affected are doomed 
sooner or later to breakdown and death. When limbs 




FIG. 86 
CANNON BALL IN OAK TREE 
Even the trees fry to heal the 
wounds made by war. This speci- 
men is in the Jenny Wade mu- 
seum at Gettysburg, Md. Many 
trees still standing on the battle- 
field have completely buried the 
shots that wounded them. 



128 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



die or break off trees they leave stubs on which dust col- 
lects and with moisture furnishes congenial conditions 
for the germs of decay. As the decay extends down the 
stub it enters the trunk despite the efforts of the cambium 
to cover over the end of the stub (Fig. 203). In time the 
whole of the heart wood may rot away, leaving a bee 
tree ! When properly handled by man — that is, when no 
stubs are left — the heart wood will not decay but will 
continue to perform its function, namely, that of strength- 
ening the tree so it will bear heavy loads of fruit, ice or 
snow. 

119. Rational wounds may be defined as those which 
reduce to a minimum the danger of killing plant tissues 
in young and growing parts of trees 
and of decay in mature limbs and 
trunks. The making of wounds in 
pruning naturally resolves itself into 
a threefold question — when, where, 
how? It will simplify matters to con- 
sider these three phases all together 
rather than to take them up separately. 
120. Pruning small twigs and 
branches may often be done with a 
knife or a pair of shears (Fig. 88), the 
former preferred wherever possible, 
(a) Always such implements should be 
sharp so as to leave a clean, smooth 
cut. (b) The surface exposed by cut- 
ting should be as small as practicable 
so as to favor most rapid healing, (c) 
The cut should be made neither too 
far above, nor too near the upper- 
most bud left to continue growth, 
because if made too high, the stub 
above the bud, being deprived of food, will die back to 
the bud and thus make a second later cut necessary ; and 
if too near, the surface will dry out and thus enfeeble or 




FIG. 87 
HEART DECAYING 
The dark streak 
shows how the original 
seedling grew — crooked 
— and how the irregu- 
larity disappeared as 
the tree increased in 
girth. A broken branch 
left a stub which ad- 
mitted decay to the 
heart wood, as shown 
by the dark streak. 



now WOUNDS HEAL 



129 



kill the bud. The amount of wood to leave will depend 
somewhat upon the species and perhaps the variety of 
the plant being operated upon, those with open, porous 
wood, like the grape and the peach, I)eing cut with longer 
stubs than those with dense wood, like apple and pear. 

When pruning small branches or seedlings in which 
buds or grafts have been inserted it is often advisable to 
leave fairly long 
stubs and to make 
second cuts nearer 
to the unions some 
weeks later after the 
tissues have knit 
firmly. In such cases 
the stubs should be 
pared down smooth- 
ly and close to the 
cion growths. 

(d) In the forma- 
tion of tops in 
young trees, the 
heads may be 
spread somewhat 
by pruning to buds 
on the outside of 
the twigs ; they 
may be brought 
somewhat closer 
together by prun- 
ing to inside buds ; 
raised somewhat by 
pruning to buds on 
the upper sides and 
lowered by pruning 
to buds on the lower 
sides. Thus erect growers, such as Northern Spy apple 




FIG. 88— CUTS MADE HEADING-IN TWIGS 
A, cut correctly made not too c!o<e but with 
proper slant from the bud. B, cut far too long. 
Too large surface exposed. I.ikelv to dry badi ■. 
C, too large an amount of wood left abo.e bud. 
Will dry and die back to bud and must be cut a 
second time. D, cut too close to bud. Sure to 
dry out and kill bud. Will die back to next bud. 



130 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



trees, may be somewhat spread out, and sprawling ones, 
like Rhode Island Greening apples, raised, and so on. 

121. Fall vs. spring pruning of twigs and small 
branches. — Common experience shows that even when 
small twigs and branches are cut properly, as just in- 




FIG. f 9— WRONG WAY TO CUT OFF BIG LIMB 
The leverage due to the weight of the Umb will almost always produce this 
kind of break. [The tree was to be cut down anyway to clear the ground for a 
building !] 

dicated (120), there may be dying back. This rarely 
occurs, however, when the pruning is done in the spring. 
Fall-pruned twigs very frequently kill back an inch to 



now WOl'NDS HEAL 



131 



several inches, because the exposed ends of the twigs dry- 
out and therefore die back as far as the drying extends, 
perhaps even farther. For this reason fall-planted trees 
should never be as severely pruned back as those set in 
the spring, the idea being to leave the stubs, say, 6 inches 
longer than they should be, so that second cuts may be 
made at the desired places just before growth starts in 




FIG. 90— PROPER WAY TO START CUTTING OFF LARGE LIMB 
A cut should first be made underneath the limb a foot or more from the union 
of this limb with the trunk. When the s.w binds or sticks a second cut should be 
made from above and near to the first. See Fig. 91. 

the spring. When the second cutting is not given, the 
uppermost bud on each twig will attempt to bury the dead 
stub. Whether or not it succeeds is immaterial, there 
will always be a weak spot in the branch at such points 
even though no actual decay may follow. Healing occurs 
most satisfactorily when the stub is very short and the 
bud develops a sturdy twig. 



132 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



When branches as thick as one's little finger or some- 
what larger are to be cut close to the main trunk, leaving 
the 6-inch stubs will be found a decided advantage for 
another reason ; namely, the ease of cutting. For when 
branches of these sizes are to be cut with a knife, as they 
should be, far less effort will be needed if the branch is 
bent upward or toward the trunk or main limb. A branch 
that would require about all one's strength to cut while 




FIG. 91— SECOND CUT PROPERLY MADE IN SAWING OFF LARGE LIMBS 
This is the same branch as shown in Fig. 90. Notice there is no splitting or 
tearing of the wood, as in Fig. 89. AH that is necessary now is to saw off the short 
stub close to the remaining limb. 

in normal position may, when so bent, be cut as easily 
as cheese, and a smoother, neater job done as well. This 
is one of the most valuable points to remember in prun- 
ing newly set trees. 

This matter of twig pruning has special importance in 
the training of trees as dwarfs (270), espaliers, cordons, 
etc. (Chapter XVII), for much of the successful fruiting 



HOW WOUNDS HEAL 



133 



of such plants is due to it. lu Europe, where the train- 
ing of fruit trees on walls and trellises is far more com- 
mon than in the United States, the expert gardener may 
cut off undesirable shoots at his leisure during the winter, 
but leave stubs several inches longer than necessary for 
an inexperienced assistant to remove just before growth 
starts in the spring. 

122. Where to cut large limbs. — From what has been 
explained (116), it is evident that stubs should never be 




FIG. 92— WRONG WAY TO MA'E A CUT IN REMOVING A LARGE LIMB 

left permanently when limbs are cut off. It is, however, not 
so evident how close to the main trunk cuts should be made 
to remove large limbs. Some pruners contend that a 
slight shoulder should be left so as to expose a smaller 
area of cut surface to the air. They claim that the saw- 
cut should be approximately at right angles to the limb 
being removed. Experiments in many parts of the coun- 



134 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



try, however, have proved beyond question that the more 
nearly parallel the cut is made to the direction of sap 
flov^, the quicker w^ill be the healing-, because all parts of 
the wound are thus kept in close connection with the 
downward flow of elaborated sap. The objection that 
the wound thus made must almost always be larger than 
in the other case is discounted by the better results se- 
cured in healing. To make this matter emphatic, the 
principle may be laid down that no part of an amputated 

branch should extend be- 
yond the trunk from 
which the t)ranch has 
1)een cut. 

123. Time to cut off 
large limbs. — From nu- 
merous experiments it 
has been deduced that the 
time of year when a 
wound is made is a very 
minor factor to consider 
in pruning. No one sea- 
son invariably gives best 
results. It must be 
noted, however, that no 
healing can occur while 
the cambium is inactive, 
as in late fall, winter and 
perhaps also during pro- 
tracted dry weather. 
This statement has 
special force in very cold, 
dry climates, because 
the exposed tissues will 
probably dry out seri- 
ously. In all fall and 
winter pruning, par- 
ticularly of large limbs, the cambium and the bark have 




RIGHT WAY TO MAKE PRUN NG CUT 



HOW WOUNDS HEAL 



135 



a tendency to die around the margins of wounds even t<j 
the extent of loosening the bark. Unquestionalily such 
drying is a hindrance to healing. Another point against 
pruning at that season is that the exposed wood is sure to 
check more severely than if it is exposed to the air for a 
shorter time and during a period of the year when the 
sap flow is more active. 




FIG. 94— SAD EFFECTS OF SLEET STORM 

This Norway maple is one of several seriously injured by a recent storm at 
State College, Pa. It is doubtful if any pruning or training could have prevented in- 
jury in this particular case, for the limbs are practically all broken where there were 
no bad crotches or decayed parts. The Norway maple seems to be specially weak. 

But how about pruning during the growing season ? Is 
there no objection to it? Yes — a theoretical one, at 
least. It is claimed that pruning in spring and early 



136 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



summer favors "bleeding" from the exposed surface. 
The author, though he has looked for instances and has 
searched horticultural literature, knows of only one case, 

that reported by Newman 
15), to support this claim 
that plants which "bleed" 
when cut are injured there- 
by. Grapevines, maples, 
Japanese walnuts, box eld- 
ers and many other woody 
plants bleed profusely when 
wounded, especially in 
early spring. But these 
trees appear to suffer no in- 
jury from the process. Yet 
one well authenticated case, 
such as that of Newman's, 
supports the contention that 
injury does result from 
such cutting. It is there- 
fore well to err on the safe 
side and avoid cutting after 
or just before growth of 
such plants starts. 

As the result of several 
series of experiments in 
pruning trees during every 
month in the year, it has been 
concluded that season is of 
far less consequence than 
the length of the stub and 
the position of the wound 
with respect to the trunk 
from which the limb was removed. Of these two, the latter 
is the more important. Wounds on actively growing 
limbs heal most quickly, and when the limbs are erect 
or nearly so, the healing is quicker than on horizontal 




FIG. 95 

LABEL WIRE MAKES GIRDLED LIMB 

BLOOM PREMATURELY 



HOW WOUNDS HEAL 137 

or nearly horizontal limbs. Contrary to popular belief 
that it is not wise to prune limbs that are frozen solid, ex- 
periments have shown that the mere frozen condition has 
no influence except, perhaps, as noted by Lewis (ITjO). As 
a summary of all the experiments as to season of pruning-, 
it may be said that the best time to prune is during the 
six or eight weeks that precede the resumption of growth 
in sjM'ing. 

124. How to remove large limbs. — Next to making a 
wound in the correct position is the importance of mak- 
ing the surface smooth ; for a smooth surface will not 
favor the development of fungi and bacteria to the same 
extent as will a rough or splintered surface. It is folly 
to remove a large limb with one cut, even if that cut is 
made in the ideal position. The leverage of the limb will 
surely split, splinter or tear the trunk more or less seri- 
ously (Figs. 89, 92). Safety lies in making three cuts, the 
first on the lower side of the limb and at a distance of a foot 
or more from the main trunk, the second on the upper or 
opposite side of the limb and close to the first cut (Fig. 
90), the third close to the trunk where the final wound is 
to be (Figs. 91, 93). In making the first cut it will not 
be long ere the saw will bind or stick. When this occurs 
the second cut is started. Often before the second cut 
reaches the first the limb will fall, leaving a stub which 
can be easily removed at the proper point when the third 
cut is made close to the trunk. 



CHAPTER VII 



PREVENTION AND REPAIR GF MECHANICAL 
INJURIES 

125. Kinds of injuries. — Casual observation will show 
that trees suffer from many kinds of mechanical injuries. 
Storms, particularly of sleet (Fig. 94) and those which 
arrive while the trees are loaded with fruit, cause serious 
breakage of branches, but such injuries usually resolve 
themselves into cases of a simple pruning. The injuries 
here to be considered are those mainly due to the igno- 
rance or the carelessness of the planter or to animals, such 

as hogs, rabbits, mice and 
hired men. Many of these 
injuries may be easily pre- 
vented and cured. Several 
typical cases will be con- 
sidered here. The reader 
may also refer to the chap- 
ter on tree surgery for the 
treatment of a different class 
of injuries. 

126. Label wire injuries 
are very common (Figs. 95, 
96), .so are those caused by ty- 
ing trees too tightly to stakes 
and by fastening guy wires 
and ropes around trunks and 
branches (Fig. 313). The 
effect is the same in all cases. 
Wire fences often injure tree 
trunks more or less when fastened to them (Fig. 309 C), but 
usually such injuries extend only part way arouiod the 
trunks. Instances are recorded where the growth of such 

138 




FIG. 96— A WIRE GIRDLED THIS 
CHERRY TREE 



TREVEXTION AND REPAIR OF MECHANICAL INJURIES 13Q 



trees as poplar has extended over even board fences fastened 
to them. Figure 97 shows an oak tree which has grown 
around the end of a bench at Hunter's Park, Pennsyl- 
vania.* Label wire injuries are always due to careless- 
ness or ignorance. At 
planting time the wire 
is left encircling the 
trunk of the newly set 
tree. Because it is 
loose it looks harmless, 
but when the tree 
grows it soon begins to 
cut the trunk and to 
check the flow of elab- 
orated sap from the 
leaves downward. Cop- 
per wire, the kind usu- 
ally employed by nurs- 
erymen, is especially 
pernicious because it 
lasts much longer than 
does iron or string. 
When the wire is on 
the main trunk its in- 
jury may be so severe 
as to kill the tree; 
when on a branch, it 
may cause an abnormal 
development (Fig. 95). 
Generally the trunk 
becomes larger above than below the girdle (Fig. 96). 

Label wire and other girdles are not necessarily fatal 
to the trees so injured (Fig. 96). As long as the sap 




FIG. 97 
BENCH SUPPORTED BY LIVING TREE 

Originally there were upright supports 
beneath the bench, but these have rotted 
away. The board, not being in contact with 
the soil and being quickly dried after rains, 
continued sound and rigid. The bark there- 
fore grew around the end as seen. The tree 
at the other end of this bench shows similar 
growth, and on its opposite side shows where 
another board was similarly buried but has 
been destroyed by fire, leaving a slot 4 inches 
deep where the bench originally met the trunk. 



*A similar case is pictured in Popular Mechanics, March, 1916. In this case 
the trees grew around the boards of a fence. 



140 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



continues to flow upward there is a chance that the parts 
of the stem above and below the girdle will unite and 
form new conduits for elaborated food to reach the parts 
below the girdle, especially the roots. The season when 
the injury occurs has much to do with the healing. 

Girdles which occur in 
spring may be healed by 
autumn ; those made in late 
summer, fall and early 
winter may cause such loss 
of moisture that the inner 
bark, the cambium and the 
sap-wood may die at the 
point of girdling and the tree 
die before spring. This 
furnishes a hint as to killing 
trees by girdling: do the 
work in late summer and 
make the cut below the sap- 
wood. 

127, Prevention of crotch 
splitting. — It is far easier 
to prevent than to cure the 
splitting of a Y-crotch. 
Nursery trees, which have 
two branches of practically 
equal size, especially if both 
are almost vertical, and 
thus form an acute angle, 
are sure to break later be- 
cause the leverage will crack 
the bark and allow decay to 
enter and weaken the 
union (Fig. 98). As the leverage increases and the decay 
descends farther into the trunk the union becomes so 
weak that one or both the branches will break and thus 
ruin the tree. Nursery and other young trees with Y- 




FIG. 98— HOW TO HANDLE YOUNG 
FORKED TREE 
When limbs occur below the natural 
head they should be cut off as close to 
the trunk as possible, unless they are 
so large that the cut will make a dan- 
gerous wound. Then they should be 
shortened to a few inches to prevent 
their making much growth and the stubs 
removed the following season. In this 
case the branch cut to a stub would 
have formed a Y-crotch. Had there 
been no good head above, the cutting 
back would have allowed a new limb to 
form. (See text.) 



PREVENTION AXD REPAIR OF MECHANICAL INJURIES 141 



crotches may be treated in three ways to prevent split- 
ting, (a) One of the branches may be completely cut 
off at planting time or while still small. Doubtless this 
is generally the safest and most satisfactory method 
because it disposes at 
once of all possibility 
of breakage, (b) One 
of the branches, the 
smaller usually pre- 
ferred, may be cut back 
severely so as to make 
it develop into a side 
branch rather than in- 
to a leader. Often 
this is an effective plan, 
especially if the prun- 
ing be such as to spread 
the tree and make the 
side branch less erect 
than it would be as a 
leader, (c) The third 
method applies or 
should apply only when 
the Y-crotch has not 
been treated as above 
suggested, but has been 
allowed to grow for a 
year to, say, perhaps, 
ten years. A brace of 
living wood may be de- 
veloped between the two 
arms of the Y so as to 
form, when finished, an 
inverted capital letter A. 

Usually the best way to secure such a brace is by 
twining together two living branches produced by op- 
posite arms of the Y. Preferably each branch should be 




FIG. 99— HISTORY OF A CROTCH SPLIT 
These sections of a black cherry limb show 
the progress of decay downward between the 
branch and the main trunk. In the top sec- 
tion the decay has progressed to the extent 
of separating the two parts — not so much as 
shown, but with a distinct cleavage. The 
middle and lower sections show the decay 
working downward at the discolored spot on 
each. 



142 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 




growing on the inner side of 
the arm; that is, each branch 
should grow toward the op- 
posite arm and at approximately 
the same distance from the 
acute angle of the Y, say, 2 to 
4 or 5 feet. Each branch should 
be long enough to extend a foot 
or more beyond the arm on the 
opposite side. It will also be 
an aid if the arms of the Y are 
drawn somewhat closer to- 
gether (an inch or two) than 
they normally stand, and kept 
in this position for two or more 
years — until the branches have 
grown together. 

The principle upon which 
this method is based is that the 
intertwined branches will unite 
by natural graftage. As soon as the graft union is com- 
plete the tips of the l^ranches may be shortened little by 
little annually and finally cut ofif close to the arms of 
the Y. It is advisable to leave as 
many leafy twigs as possible on the 
intertwined branches, but to re- 
move these little by little in spring, 
beginning with the largest, as the 
union of the two branches becomes 
stronger. The finished brace will 
more or less resemble the one 
shown in Figure 104. 

When only one branch can be 
secured to form the brace, it may 
be grafted to the opposite arm. The 
branch selected should be well 
ripened when used. This grafting 



FIG. 100— TRIPLE Y-CROTCH 
This badly neglected tree is 
triply weak because of the three 
Y-crotches. It is doomed. Several 
large branches have been cut off. 
Two scars show. 




FIG. 101 
SAVING A Y-CROTCH 
Pine 2 x 4-inch scantling 
with telegraph wire is here 
used. This is better than 
wire alone, but is not very 
effective because there is too 
much "give." The limbs 
should be bolted together 
higher up. 



TREVENTION AND REPAIR OF MECHANICAL INJURIES 143 

is of the simplest nature. In spring the cambium on 
both branch and arm may be exposed by a small cut on 
each. The two cut surfaces may then be brought in close 
contact, fastened so firmly that there will be no motion, 
and then covered with grafting wax. 

Each year the binding rope should be loosened to pre- 
vent girdling of the arm. Probably in three to five years 
the union will be complete and the tip of the branch may 
be cut off close to the arm. A modification of this method, 
applicable to Y arms of rather large diameter, is to bore 




FIG. 102— SPLITTING OF PEACH TREE WHERE THE TOP WAS IMPROPERLY 
FORMED WITH A Y-CROTCH 

a hole through one arm for the branch from the other arm 
to pass through and beyond. Tying and waxing as above 
recommended are advisable in this case also. 

127a. Grafting wax.* — "The resin and beeswax waxes 
are all started alike ; the materials previously made into 
small lumps may all be placed in the pot together, but 
preferably the resin is melted over a very gentle fire first 
and the other ingredients added. Boiling must be avoided. 
After stirring to make uniform, the melted mixture is 
poured into a tub of cold water and flattened out so it 
will cool evenly. When cool enough to handle, it is 

* Kains, Plant Propagation, Greenhouse and Nursery Practice, Page 222. 



144 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



kneaded and pulled till the color resembles molasses 
taffy. To prevent its sticking to the skin, the hands are 
kept greasy. Should lumps occur (because of improper 
handling), it may be re-melted and re-cooked. Usually 
the wax is made into balls or sticks for convenient use. 
It will keep indefinitely. Linseed oil for making grafting 
waxes must be free from adulterations such as cottonseed 

oil." Favorite formulae are as 
follows : Resin 3 pounds, bees- 
wax 3 pounds, tallow 2 pounds ; 
a cheaper wax : Resin 4 pounds, 
beeswax 2, tallow 1 ; resin 4, 
beeswax 2. linseed oil 1 pint — 
increase oil for softness ; resin 
6, beeswax 2, linseed oil 1 pint. 
128. Bridge or repair graft- 
ing,* sometimes erroneously 
called inarching, may be the 
means of saving valuable trees 
which have been injured by 
mice, rabbits, hogs, human 
carelessness or accident. 

Unless the girdle has cut 
through the sap-wood it is an 
error to say that bridge graft- 
ing is necessary to establish 
connection between root and 
top, for the upward current of 
sap passes through the sap- 
wood and not through the bark. It is correct, however, to say 
that the bridge establishes a connection between top and root, 
for the downward flow of elaborated sap is through the 
bark layers. As soon as the wound is discovered the 
operation should be performed. If the injury occurs in 
winter the wound should be protected to prevent drying. 






FIG. 103— ONE WRONG WAY 
TO MEND Y-CROTCH 
The Y split because of over- 
load of fruit, but the owner 
brought it back to place with 
tackles and put a chain around the 
arms. Growth is burying the 
chain. Notice the attempts of the 
tree to heal the wounds made by 
the cutting of limbs. The interior 
of the trunk is decayed badly be- 
cause of wrong methods of cut- 
ting branches. 



*Quoted from the author's book, Plant Propagation, Greenhouse and Nursery 
Practice. 



PREVENTION AND REPAIR OF MECHANICAL INJURIES 145 

In spring- when the buds begin to swell the grafting 
should be done. The operation is performed as follows: 
The injured, and perhaps dry bark, on both upper and 
lower edges of the wound is pared back to living tissue. 
Several cions are cut long enough to extend a little be- 




FIG. 104— LIVING WOOD BRACE BETWEEN TRUNK AND LIMB OF NORWAY 
MAPLE. SHOULD HAVE BEEN MADE HIGHER UP TO BE STRONGER 

yond these trimmed edges, and inserted beneath the 
bark both above and below, thus making little "bridges" 
across the gap. The ends of the cion are cut obliquely, 
to insure fitting of the cambium layers of cions and trunk. 
It is often a help to bow the cions outward slightly, be- 
cause the spring thus formed aids in holding them in 
place. But these and other minor details may be left to 
individual preference. If placed an inch or so apart 
around the trunk, enough cions should succeed to save 
the tree. Both wound and cions should be completely 
covered with grafting wax, preferably made warm so as 



146 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



to fit into every chink and thus exclude air and water. 
In a few years the cions wnll grow together and in time 
lose their identity in a smooth trunk. 

Bridge grafting is a makeshift method not to be com- 
pared with proper protection of trunks by keeping ani- 
mals out of the orchard, by avoiding accumulation of 
grass, straw, etc., in Avhich mice might form nests, and 
by using trunk protectors — splints, tarred or building 

paper, but preferably half- 
inch galvanized hardware 
cloth — around the trunks 
until the trees have de- 
veloped rough bark. Such 
methods will prevent the 
necessity of bridge grafting 
except in cases of unusual 
accident. 

When the girdles are 
narrow — say only one to 
three inches — no bridging 
may be necessary. In such 
cases, however, it is well to 
err on the safe side by 
covering the wound with 
grafting clay (half clay and 
fresh cow manure) and 
bandaging this in with cotton cloth, or by using grafting 
wax. Often such wounds will heal over in a single season. 
129. Pruning tools of many styles are upon the market, 
but many of them are of small utility and some worse 
than useless, positively harmful. Of course the tool 
equipment will vary with the man and with the type of 
work to be done. In general, however, the kit will con- 
sist of a knife, a pair of hand shears and two or three 
different types and sizes of saws. If there is to be much head- 
ing back of side branches out of hand reach a pole pruner 
(Figs. 106 to 108) may be added, and for removing dead 




FIG 



105— WELL-BRANCHED LOW- 
HEADED PEACH 
No danger of splitting from even 
heavy load 




FIG. 106— MISCELLANEOUS PRUNING TOOLS 
a, Waters' tree pruner; b, stronger pattern; c, d, e and / four styles of branch 
loppers— all clumsy; g, pruning spud and hook for brambles; h, raspberry hook, 
I, combined saw and lopper; /. pole chisel; k, combined saw and chisel; I, m, 
lopping shears; n and o, trunk scrapers. 



148 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



blackberry canes from the stools a hook pruner also 
(Fig. 106 A). Even the best pole pruner does poor work 
except, perhaps, in heading-in, and then the work itself 
is inferior to that done by the shears, the knife and the 
saw, but these cannot be used without taking too much 
time to reach the parts to be removed. The pole pruner 
simply cannot be constructed or used so as to make a cut 
properly. 




Biy 




FIG. 107— POLE SHEARS FOR OUTSIDE BRANCH PRUNING 
No. I. Good shear, simple, strong. The most satisfactory pole shear. Inex- 
pensive. No. 2. Double lever in shear. No better than No. 1. Has more parts 
to get out of order. No. 3. Old type of "Waters' " shear. Double guard prevents 
close cutting, leaves a bruise and often becomes choked with wood and bark. 
No. 4. Good shear, but the long arm is clumsy. A very good shear to transport 
because the pole is detachable. No. 5. Objectionable double guard and clumsy arm. 
No. 6. Very awkward and clumsy. Inefficient and much too expensive. 

Next to the pole pruner the knife will be used least 
of the general equipment because the shears are quicker, 
yet it cannot be dispensed with, because, for certain work, 
such as pruning side shoots off young tree trunks, noth- 
ing will take its place. The pruning knife should be stout, 
the blade made of the best steel and kept always very 
sharp. For this reason the style which permits the re- 



PREVENTION AND REPAIR OF MECHANICAL INJURIES 149 

moval and replacement of blades in the one handle offers 
special advantage where a large amount of pruning must 
be done. It saves time going to and from the tool house 
and investment in knives. Fig. 112 shows popular styles 
of pruning knives. 

Pruning shears will be used a hundred times where the 
tree pruner is used once, and at least a score of times 



H«= 



— — ■ — -yT- 



i^^ 



^^jLj^^ 



afggE^3Ssas=3=SSsa^^^a^aBSSSSBS^SSBSsnBB^ 



FIG. 108— POLE SHEAR PRUNERS, SLIDING HANDLE TYPE 

Nos. 1 and 2. Reverse or U-type. Not as handy in use as common hook type. 
No. 3. Satisfactory light type. No. 4. Powerfully made and cuts fairly well, but 
the head is extremely heavy. Undesirable. No. 5. Objectionable double guard 
style. Pole seriously weakened by the peculiar lever device. No. 6. Double shear 
type devised for light work. Pole weakened by peculiar lever device. 

to the knife. It is of especial use in pruning trees up to 
the age of five or six years for the removal of branches 
up to say half an inch in diameter. Many makes are 
for sale, some of them excellent. Points to bear in mind 
when choosing a pair are to have first-class steel in the 
blade, because a keen edge is necessary to do good work 
and prevent injury to the parts to be left on the plant. 
Next, the shears should be free working, with a good 
spring to open them promptly after making a cut. The 



150 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



style of spring is a matter of preference. The author likes 
the style shown in Fig. 109 a, because it is less likely to be- 
come caught in branches than are the styles shown in b 
and c. For general orchard work the shears should 
be rather heavy, with a handle long enough in propor- 
tion to the length of the blade to give plenty of power 
when cutting fairly large branches. A 10-inch size is 




FIG. 109— PRUNING SHEARS OF VARIOUS STYLES 
a. Author's preference because spring is strong, small and not likely to be 
fouled with twigs; b, undesirable form of spring because, unless very stiff likely 
to be pulled loose by twigs caught in it; handle also poorly adapted to hand; 
c, parrot's beak (see Fig. 110), spring not very good form; d, French style, 
author's second choice, but preferred by many fruit growers; e, hedge trimmers, 
ordinary style. An improvement is the hollowing of the blade near the hinge so 
as to hold large limbs and prevent slipping. More costly, but decidedly better. 

about right for general orchard work ; a smaller one for 
cutting twigs and berry bushes. Double-handed shears 
have their special uses in removing larger branches than 
could be cut easily with the single-hand shears. Unless 
kept very sharp they are likely to do injury to the parts 
left. Therefore, the saw should be preferred to them 
wherever it can be used. 
130. Pruning saws (Figs. Ill, 115 to 117) are by no means 




FIG. no— GOOD, BAD AND INDIFFERENT HAND SHEARS. 

The shears in the upper row are simply and durably constructed and are 
efficient in operation. Note the sharp-pointed blades. The good grip secured by 
smooth handles makes it possible to turn these in the hand very easily. Turning 
secures the best cuts by keeping the blade always close in with the guard on the 
outside of the cut. Numbers 5 and 6 are light shears for use with small fruits 
or grapes. The shears in the lower row present several kinds of objectionable 
features, and most of them are poorly made. No. 7 has a loop handle which pre- 
vents turning. Nos. 8, 9 and 10 have knobs on the handles. They invariably pro- 
duce blisters and may prevent turning for proper use. No. 8 has too blunt a point. 
No. 9 has an objectionable double guard and a poor point. No. 10 opens too wide 
and has a very poor point. No. 11 is a freak device of no value except as a 
curiosity. 



152 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



perfect ; indeed the majority on the market do too inferior 
work to deserve the name. Most conspicuous among 
these is the double-edge abomination (Fig. Ill) pictured 
in seedsmen's and nurserymen's catalogs. It not only 
cuts the trees where it should not, but cuts the man who 
uses it the least bit carelessly. Experienced pruners 
shun it. 

Several styles and sizes of saws are needed because 
of the variety of work to be done. For heavy work, such 

as orchard renovation, the blade 
should be 24 to 27 inches long, 
5 to 6 inches wide at the base, 
about 1 inch wide at the small 
end and have five or six teeth 
of ordinary form to the inch. 
The ordinary tooth will give 
better satisfaction than the 
"lumberman's tooth" often on 
the double-edged saw (Fig. 
111). For lighter work, such as 
that on trees well handled from 
the start, a lighter, smaller saw 
is needed. One with a blade 
21 to 24 inches long, 4 inches 
wide at the handle, 1 inch at 
the tip and with 5, 5V2 or 6 
ordinary teeth to the inch will 
be found very satisfactory. 
For smaller branches a still smaller, thinner saw will 
do excellent work. One 15 inches long, 3 wide at 
the base, tapering to a point and carrying 6, 6^ or 7 
ordinary teeth to the inch is about right. A curved saw 
with teeth pointing toward the handle is often of special 
use in making draw cuts. Its length may be about 15 
inches, its width at the point 1 inch and at the handle 2 
or 2JX inches. In California it is largely used in sawing 
old grapevines for grafting. 






FIG. Ill 
COMMON PRUNING SAWS 
The uppermost saw differs 
from an ordinary pruning saw 
only in having a slightly curved 
blade. The handle is too small 
for the gloved hand. So is the 
handle in No. 2, which is a very 
objectionable type of saw be- 
cause of its double-edged blade. 
The lowest tool is popular in 
California for cutting grapevines 
that are to be grafted near the 
surface of the ground. On it the 
teeth are set for a draw cut. 



PREVENTION AND REPAIR OF MECHANICAL INJURIES 153 



A modification of the butcher's saw, with swivels that 
permit the very thin, narrow, fine-toothed blade being 
set on the bias, is particularly good for small branches 
and twigs, because the heavy bow gives weight to the 
light blade, which makes clean cuts at any angle desired. 
This is the type of saw the author specially likes for the 
work it is capable of doing. 




FIG. 112— PRUNING KNIVES OF VARIOUS STYLES 
The three upper ones differ little except in the shape of the handle. The bot- 
tom one is a Nagle Re-blade knife in which the blades are replaceable. This is a 
convenient style because an assortment of blades may be kept for chanjjing from 
dull to sharp ones, or to different forms. The blades readily slip into the handle 
when in the nearly closed position. 

In Fig. 117 is shown a set of saws designed for student 
use. The interchangeable blades permit a variety of 
demonstration work. In practice, however, the author 
and his experienced students did not like this particular 
design. The blades are too light, and the grip part of the 
handle too small for anv but small-sized hands. 



CHAPTER VIII 



DRESSINGS FOR WOUNDS 



Many things have been recommended for protecting 
wounds. Poultices of fresh cow manure mixed with clay 
were lauded by fruit growers 50 years or more ago ; graft- 
ing wax and paint during the past 50 years ; creosote and 
tar by some fruit growers and foresters of the present 
day. While the manure method is nowadays rarely used, 
the paints and the grafting wax are doubtless most popu- 
lar, but objections are raised to them because of their 
expense and their faulty protection. 




FIG. 113— COLLECTION OF PRUNING KNIVES 
a. Combination of pruning, general and budding blades; h, stationary pruning 
blade; c, pocket pruning and penknife; d, pruner for herbaceous and other small 
growths; e, hawk-bill knife; /, popular style of pruning knife. 

In an old orchard the author found a slab of paint ( !) 
made by the coats of several years' painting. It was a 
quarter of an inch thick, had a little rotten wood cling- 
ing to its under side. Beneath this "protection" the heart 
wood of the 6 or 8-inch branch wound it had covered was 
so decayed that quantities of it could be pulled out by 
hand with almost no effort. Such cases should condemn 
painting. 

154 




FIG. 114— PRINCIPAL STYLES OF DOUBLE-HANDLED LOPPING SHEARS 
No. 1. A strong, well-made shear of simple construction and moderate cost. 
The bolt has a lock nut to allow for adjustment. Desirable type. No. 2. Strong, 
well made, light weight shear of moderate cost. If provided with a bolt and a 
lock nut instead of a rivet it would be as good as No. 1. No. 3. A very powerful well- 
made shear, but does not show desirable simplicity of construction. Cos"s more 
than the average. No. 4. Fairly good and inexpensive. The blade has a blunt, 
rounded bevel which is not as good as on those above. A stop must also be pro- 
vided to save the pruner's knuckles. No. 5. Powerful shear of English make. Has 
a rivet instead of a bolt and a lock nut and costs more than the average. No. 6. 
The "double cut" type of shear. Cannot be used in close quarters where pointed 
blades work easily. Has no locking device for the nut and the handles are weak. 
Not desirable. 



156 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



During the past decade much experimenting has been 
done by botanists, foresters, pomological investigators 
and others to determine the desirable and the undesirable 
dressings. Many experiments are as yet incomplete; 




FIG. 115— GOOD, BAD AND INDIFFERENT PRUNING SAWS 
No. 1. Long, heavy saw for large limbs. No. 2. General purpose saw. Both 
these styks are good. Compare lengths with the 18-inch ruler. No. 3 is the 
"made to sell" saw with the "lumberman's" tooth on one side and the ordinary 
tooth on the other. It is a dangerous weapon both to trees and operators. The 
best place for it is in a museum of torture implements. No. 4 is a pole saw wi h 
swivel blade. Where branches can't be reached easily it serves fairly well because 
the thin, small-toothed blade makes clean cuts. No. 5 differs from No. 4 only in 
the handle. It would be better with a handle similar to No. 1. No. 6 is a hea' y 
affair with an iron handle. It is a mean thing to use on a cold day, because thj 
handle chills the hand in spite of the exercise of sawing. 

some have been reported upon. In order to present all 
sides of such an important question the author has quoted 
freely from several of the already published writings. 
Hitherto the author has favored pure M^hite lead in pure 
raw linseed oil, but this is too expensive as well as too 
risky. At present, the case appears to him in favor of 



DRESSINGS FOR WOUNDS 



157 



asphaltum, creosote, tar and carbolineum, as recom- 
mended by Selby (132, 135) and Cook (134). 

Wherever a dressing is used it may be made less con- 
spicuous by adding some pigment to change the color. 
For instance, white lead paint may be turned to a bark- 
colored gray with a little raw sienna, and cement may be 
similarly treated with asphaltum. 




FIG. 116— TYPES OF HAND SAWS FOR TREE PRUNING 
Nos. 1 and 2. Good examples of the swivel blade type. Good grips. Make 
good cuts in any position and are not e.xpensive. This type once used is always 
used. No. 2 has loose pins in the blade. These are often lost when the tension 
is slackened. No. 4. Common type, with fine teeth toward the tapered point for 
use in narrow quarters. The handle is small for the gloved hand. Does fairly good 
work and is inexpensive. 

131. Experiments in wound healing.* — Experiments in wound heal- 
ing were made in Nebraska with six treatments— liquid grafting 
wax, shellac varnish, white lead paint, pine tar and coal tar and no 
treatment. "Wax is the only application which appears to possess 
any advantage in aiding the wound to heal, though most of them 
did not hinder the process. . . .Those treated with shellac did not 
I in June] seem to have healed quite as well as those left untreated 
[but in September there seemed to be! a slight difference m favor 
of shellac over those untreated. Paint does not hinder the process 



• Epitomized from Nebraska Bulletin 50, Page 8. 



158 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 

of healing, and there is httle evidence that it favors it, the slight 
variation being no more than would naturally occur between two 
sets of wounds treated in the same way. Those treated with pine 
tar seem not to have healed quite so well as those untreated, al- 
though the difference was not great. Coal tar, however, seems to 
have been a positive hindrance to the healing process, not one 
wound having been reported as healing extremely well, while the 
majority [healed] only fairly well." 




FIG. 117— STUDENTS' COMBINATION SAWS 
The upper tool shows the saw complete. The lower blades with the handle make 

up the set. 

132. Wound dressings.* — Experience has recently shown the prac- 
tical value of gas tar and forms of liquid asphaltum as wound dress- 
ings. The relatively low cost of the gas tar, 15 to 20 cents a gallon, 
and certain of its qualities, render it adapted to use for wound dress- 
ings. This material is not without limitations. One of these is a 
certain difficulty in securing a continuous covering of sensible thick- 
ness with the gas tar. Apparently very good results are secured by 
using it in the semi-fluid or rather thick state, and this applies as 
well to forms of liquid asphaltum made with linseed oil, etc. 

While at times, especially in cooler weather, it is desirable to heat 
the gas tar, imperfect covering is secured with the very fluid, hot 
tar. After cooling in part, a more favorable condition is reached. 
In general, it would seem that two applications give more desirable 
results. The second of these may be made after an interval of a 

• A. D. Selby, Circular No. 150, Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station, 



DRESSINGS FOR WOUNDS 



159 



few weeks or even a year. This material is often referred to as 
coal tar. Certain forms of thin or very fluid character used for 
roof coverings and as metal paints are not well adapted for use as 
wound dressings. 

In general, pruning wounds less than one and a half inches in 
diameter scarcely require a covering. There may be cases, how- 
ever, where heavy pruning is practiced, in which more general treat- 
ment of the wounds is advisable. Solid asphaltum has not proved 
successful as a wound covering. It may be rendered fluid as de- 
tailed below (142). 

133. Effect of various wound dressings.* — Fruit growers have long 
used paints, tars, waxes and other substances as coverings for 
wounds of trees. The following paragraphs report the effects of 




FIG. 118— POLE SAWS ARE ALL AWKWARD IN USE, MAKE RAGGED CUTS 
AND ARE UNDESIRABLE 
Nos. 1, 5 and 6 are freak devices. No. 2. Objectionable because double edged. 
No. 3. Single edge straight blade. No. 4. Swivel type, the best pole saw if one 
must be used. 



white lead, white zinc, yellow ocher, coal tar, shellac and avenarius 
carbolineum on wounds made on apple and peach. The dressings of 
these materials were applied when the pruning was done at various 
seasons of the year and upon wounds of various ages. 

In all cases undressed pruning wounds healed iriore rapidly than 
those whose surfaces were protected. Shellac seemed, the first sea- 
son, to exert a stimulating influence upon the wounds, but the second 
season this effect disappeared. Of all the materials used shellac 
was least injurious. On the other hand it adheres to the wounded 

* G. H. Howe's summary and conclusions, somewhat condensed from New York 
Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 396. 



160 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 

surfaces least well of all. Avenarius carbolineum and yellow ocher 
caused so much injury that neither substance should ever be used 
(compare 134). Coal tar not only caused injury, but quickly dis- 
appeared, either through absorption or evaporation. 

White lead and white zinc caused some injury at the time of 
application, but the wounded tissues recovered rather quickly, and 
at the close of the first season the injury was not very marked; at 
the close of the second season it had nearly disappeared. These two 
paints are the best of the protective substances used, and of the two, 
white lead is the better. 

Nothing is to be gained in the treatment of wounds by waiting 
several weeks before applying any of the various dressings used in 
these experiments. 

The treatment of peach tree wounds with any of the substances 
under experiment caused so much injury that it may be said that 
the wounds of the peach should never be treated with any of them, 
and it may be inferred that this is true of wounds on trees of all 
stone fruits. There is nothing to show in this experiment that it is 
worth while to treat large or small wounds of tree fruits with any 
of the substances in common use. Had there been a longer period 
of observation, it might have developed that the wood exposed in 
the larger wounds would have been somewhat saved from the decay 
which often sets in on exposed wood of fruit trees. It may prove 
to be worth while, therefore, to cover large wounds; in which case 
white lead is undoubtedly the best dressing to use. 

From the results of this experiment several deductions seem war- 
ranted. First, the dressings commonly applied to pruning wounds 
retard rather than accelerate the healing of the wounds. Second, 
the effects are the same whether the dressings are applied when the 
wounds are made or some weeks later when the cut surface has 
dried out. Third, the effects of the dressings used are so injurious 
to peach wood that wounds on peach trees should never be covered. 
Probably this statement holds true for other stone fruits as well. 
Fourth, these experiments suggest that the popular notion that 
wounds need to be covered with some dressing to prevent the en- 
trance of fungi, in sprayed orchards at least, is usually exaggerated. 
It is doubtful if it is necessary to attempt to prevent decay by appli- 
cations of dressings of the kinds under discussion in wounds under 
4 or 5 inches in diameter. It remains to be proved whether they 
have any real value in covering large wounds. It may be suspected 
that the injury caused by the dressing when applied to the wounds 
largely, if not wholly, offsets or even ovef-balances the protection 
offered, if there be such, against decay. 

134. Painting tree wounds.— The statements quoted from the New 
York Experiment Station bulletin above, prompted Howard B. Cook 
to publish in the Country Gentleman* an article from which the fol- 
lowing passages are condensed. Mr. Cook agrees that peach 

♦May 6, 1916, Page 988. 



DRESSINGS FOR WOUNDS 161 

wounds should not be painted because the trees are short-lived, 
quick-growing, quick to heal, and because large cuts are uncommon 
on them. He also agrees that wounds less than 2 inches in diameter 
on trees younger than thirty years need not be painted. 

But, he writes, the experimenters state that when trees are sprayed 
yearly with a fungicide, it is doubtful whether any decay will de- 
velop. If this proves true, it will be tine indeed. In tlic experiment, 
however, young, low trees were used, except for a couple of years' 
observation on older trees with a few 5-inch wounds. With older 
trees having wounds open from seven to ten years or longer it is 
not at all certain that decay will be kept out by spraying alone, 
especially since larger trees are not so minutely covered in spraying. 
A thirty-year experiment to discover the effect of spraying on the 
decay of apple trees would eventually be of consideral)le value. The 
data in the bulletin are of great value, even though the conclusions 
drawn are too broad and unnecessary in view of the "way out" 
which will soon follow. 

Armed with a hammer, a saw, and perhaps a chisel, go into an 
orchard of some fifty years' standing. Notice a wound not ftdly 
healed, but evidently daubed with paint some years ago. Rap this 
wound sharply with the hammer. A cave-in occurs; or instead the 
wound seems sound at the surface, but gives evidence of being a 
sort of bung to a decaying mass half an inch farther in. Pry out 
the bung and you will see. So much for paint as a preservative ! 

Now select a fair-sized perfectly healed wound and saw off the 
healed part or cap. You are very apt to discover a decayed wound 
or even a hollow limb. Therefore it is seen that we can have perfect 
healing over a decaying wound. Let us see how such a condition 
of affairs can affect the owner of an orchard. From an upward and 
outward swinging section of a tree are suspended four or five 
barrelfuls of apples. The limb looks sound — all wounds being 
nicely healed — and the owner ventures out upon it. Crack, snap, 
crash ! So much for perfect healing ! 

These examples show there is just one reason why we must 
apply something to pruning wounds— that is, for the preservation of 
the wood. The most effective of preservatives must be used — either a 
carbolineum or a grade one creosote oil. The bulletin says we shou'd 
never use these oils because they are the most injurious of paints in 
killing back the bark. But usually where there is a must, there is a 
may, if the problem is sufficiently studied. The solution of the prolilem 
I will presently come to. First, however, we must see what Iiappens 
when our painting kills the bark : Under dead and dying bark borers 
start, and following them comes a whitish rot of the sap wood 
which also affects the heart wood or middle of the limb. This 
destroys the tensile strength of the wood to such an extent that in 
two or three years the limb is likely to break down under its fruit 
load (Fig. 82). 

Now we come to a method of applying the liquid to preserve 
thoroughly both wood and bark in a healthy state. Since ordinary 



162 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 

heartwood-destroying fungi, start in the center or pith and seldom 
if ever affect the true sap wood, always paint from the center of 
the wound outward. Instead of painting across the sap wood clear 
to the bark, the ordinary way, leave a circle absolutely bare around 
the outside from % of an inch to an inch in width. Remember 
that these oils will penetrate a little farther than you paint, es- 
pecially at the base. So you must have a care about using a too 
heavilv charged brush. It is good practice to have a rag handy to 
swab away any surplus. 

In using these oils, the addition of just enough coal tar to give 
them a dull black color after drying will overcome any tendency 
they may have to drying in or out, so that they at least appear to 
have partly faded away. The main reason for this appearance is 
that the oils have sunk deeply into soft, decaying spots, the result of 
the decay traveling from some hole through the pith of the 
parent limb to the wound affected. For best results in preserving 
wood, two coats are usually recommended. The second may be 
applied at any time a month after the first, but ordinarily some time 
after next year's pruning will be most feasible. 

It is sometimes desired to stimulate quick healing. While the 
cut or a barked place anywhere is fresh, paint the edge of the bark 
and the sap wood only with liquid wax. This is made as follows : 
Best white — yellow will do — resin, one pound ; beef tallow, one 
ounce. Melt together, remove from the fire and stir in eight ounces 
of alcohol. Keep and use from a wide-mouthed bottle tightly corked. 
Through a hole in the stopper, thrust a small brush for applying the 
solution. Perfect results have been secured by the use of this 
material. 

135. Available antiseptic materials.*— According to A. D. Selby 
two steps in wound treatment may be found necessary in many 
cases, although in the average case of pruning to remove a branch 
with a healthy base only one may be essential. These steps are : 
(1) Sterilization of the wound surface per se. (2) The application 
of a dressing to protect from infection through the entrance of 
spores or bacteria. 

(l). The sterilization consists in killing any possible spores or 
bacteria, etc., that may be upon the surface, by the use of a torch to 
cauterize the surface, or more easily by the application of an anti- 
septic or spore-destroying substance. Among these germicides are 
corrosive sublimate, gasoline, kerosene, carbolic acid, petroleum, 
copper sulphate solution, carbolineum, formaldehyde, etc. The 
availability of any of these processes will depend especially upon the 
effect on the living layer of the wounded surface. If the cambium 
is killed appreciably it will raise the question of possible injury. 

Because of such possible injury only corrosive sublimate, copper 
sulphate and formaldehyde are apparently safe. Petroleum com- 

* Paragraphs 135 to 142 have been excerpted and condensed from Circular 126 
Oi the Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station, 



DRESSINGS FOR WOUNDS 163 

pounds, like gasoline, kerosene, etc., penetrate and destroy the living 
tissues. As to avenarius carbolineum, a proprietary substance, some 
doubt has been expressed. Because of its complete absorption by 
the wounded surface it offers many advantages. Upon dead sur- 
faces, such as those from which decay has been removed, it is avail- 
able, as are also carbolic acid and solutions of copper sulphate, cor- 
rosive sublimate, etc. Upon wounds made by the removal of malig- 
nant growths, such as crown gall, hairy-root or malignant blister 
cankers, an active antiseptic agent is required, and for such use it 
promises to be superior to copper sulphate or corrosive sublimate 
solutions. 

(2). When effective dressings are applied to newly cut surfaces, 
especially if these dressings are of possible antiseptic value, the one 
operation of applying the dressing may be considered as relatively 
adequate to the demands. 

136. Essential requirements of a wound dressing. — Wound dress- 
ings should be sufficiently fluid to be applied readily under spring 
pruning conditions — [fairly low temperatures]. They should form 
an impervious, non-cracking layer over the surface, even though 
large, since such a dressing will prevent the later drying out and 
checking of the wound. These two requirements are essentially 
antagonistic, since practically no covering within reasonable cost 
will form an impervious covering from a single application at or- 
dinary temperatures. Whenever the covering is not secured by a 
single application serious danger through subsequent checks may 
occur and thus admit disease spores. This tendency to dry out 
limits the usefulness of paints and pastes, which look satisfactory 
when applied, but dry out by midsummer. Dressings should not 
be unreasonably costly, an objection to grafting wax, which, like 
paraffin is also objectionable because of separating freely from the 
wounded surface. Adhesiveness is a valuable property in a dressing 
because it prevents abrasion. Lastly, a dressing should not injure 
the growing tissues, though slight killing may not be as objectionable 
as imperfect covering. 

137. Available materials for wound dressings.— Of the really 
available materials we have chiefly preparations of asphaltum and 
the residual tars from the distillation of wood (pitch), and from the 
manufacture of artificial gas, gas tar. The materials used in Europe 
under the name of "bitumen" are essentially forms of liquid asphal- 
tum. The varnishes or proprietary preparations offered for dress- 
ing wounds are essentially liquid asphaltum in some form. The 
fossil "gilsonite" of California is a hardened form of asphaltum. 
The western petroleums, which contain an asphaltum base, contrast 
with the Pennsylvania crude oil, which has a paraffin base. An- 
other advantage of asphaltum and gas tar materials is low cost as 
compared with the very high cost of paints containing linseed oil. 
The low cost of naphtha or gasoline as a solvent is much in its 
favor, were the preparations without risk. 



164 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 

138. Gas tar and pitch. — Gas tar is the residual tar obtained from 
coal used in gas making. This is produced in considerable quanti- 
ties, and there being only a slight demand, it is sold at low prices, 
ranging from 6 to 12 cents a gallon, exclusive of package. Pitch 
is the pine tar derived from the distillation of pitch pine. Gas tar 
handled in warm weather is fluid and very tenacious, with a strong 
tendency to be completely absorbed by the wood. Upon this absorp- 
tion it is not clear that it gives a sufficiently continuous covering 
over the wound to guard against subsequent openings. 

139. Forms of solid asphaltum. — Besides the more or less impure 
Trinidad asphaltum, used largely in street paving, there are avail- 
able various types of asphaltum, which are essentially pure and 
differ only in their melting points. All of these grades require 
heating in order to apply them. 

For heating, we use a charcoal heating pot with tall bail of suffi- 
cient spread to swing freely above a 10 to 13-quart galvanized bucket. 
This heater is provided with openings below and vent opening 
toward the top of the metal cylinder; also legs to keep free from 
the ground. In such a case it is better to melt the asphaltum upon 
some hotter fire, and merely to use the heating pot to maintain its 
temperature in the orchard. The gasoline torch type of heater may 
also be used and freely transported in the orchard. It will usually 
require special modifications to enable one to use a sufficiently large 
vessel for the asphaltum. 

The asphaltum is carefully melted until thoroughly liquid, in 
which condition it is applied with a brush, preferably an old hearth 
broom, a thin coating being run over the surface beyond the edge of 
the living tissue. A second coating may be given after the first one 
becomes partly cooled. The thickness of the coat should be de- 
termined by the surface, as thin upon smooth surfaces as will give 
complete covering. New hair brushes are usually destroyed in the 
highly heated asphaltum. 

140. Advantages and disadvantages of solid asphaltum. — The ad- 
vantages of solid asphaltum are most appreciated when one must cover 
a rough splintered wound, for the cavities may be filled with the liquid. 
The disadvantages of heating are usually great. Under ordinary 
conditions it is not feasible to build a fire in the orchard, except in 
moist weather, since there is danger of igniting the dead grass. The 
troubles in maintaining liquid conditions are also considerable, since 
to apply it effectively in a thin coating this asphaltum must be kept 
hot and very fluid. Probably the most serious disadvantage is the 
tendency to crack off during winter. There is danger also, where 
the surface is not entirely dry, that the moisture will produce bubbles 
when the asphaltum is applied. This is dangerous, especially if bubbles 
crack and expose the surface below. Yet, despite these disad- 
vantages, for large wounds melted asphaltum offers a rather higher 
efficiency than anything else we have tried. 

141. Liquid forms of asphaltum.— To make liquid asphaltum, use, 
say, 10 pounds of solid asphaltum to 20 pounds of Varnolene, a 



DRESSINGS rOR WOUNDS 165 

compound petroleum oil, containing more or less naplitlia and costing 
about 20 cents a gallon. Melt the asphaltum in a kettle of several 
gallons capacity. When thoroughly melted withdraw the lire, then 
add the Varnolene and stir thoroughly until of uniform character. 
If desired, the vessel may be again heated and uniformity better as- 
sured. This gives suitable consistency for warm weather and is in 
the proportion of one part asphaltum to two parts Varnolene by 
weight. In the winter a preparation of one part asphaltum to 2J/S 
parts Varnolene by weight may be desired. WARNING — when 

THE VARXOLEXE IS ADDED TO THE HOT ASPHALTUM AN INFLAM- 
MABLE GAS IGXITES, AFTER THE MANNER OF GASOLIXE VAPOR. 

This formula is for asphaltum having a melting point of 285°. 
With asphaltum with a melting point of 200°, the proportion of 
Varnolene may be reduced. 

142. Linseed oil fluid asphaltum. — To make a fluid asphaltum from 
linseed oil, use one part of asphaltum to l-)4 to 2 parts of linseed 
oil by weight. Heat the asphaltum until liquid, then add the linseed 
oil as per directions given above. The danger from the formation 
of inflammable gases is much less with the linseed oil than with 
the Varnolene, but cannot be entirely overlooked. [Linseed oil 
costs several times as much as Varnolene.] 

These forms of licjuid asphaltum may be prepared and packed 
in suitable cans for use at any time required. They should be put 
up in tins and soldered, since exposure to the air will make a slight 
difference in the consistency. 

143. Asphaltum and sawdust filling for cavities. — The difficulties 
arising from using cement in tilling cavities in orchard or shade 
trees are largely traceable to the rigid character of cement filling. 
The light color is at times likewise an objection to cement as a 
material for such filling; it also lacks adaptability for use in swaying 
branches. For these reasons and others, asphaltum and sawdust 
fillings, originated and tested by John Boddy, City Forester of 
Cleveland, Ohio, are recommended by A. D. Selby.* Dry sawdust 
of any variety and solid asphaltum, such as "Byerlyte" and that 
used for filling in brick pavements, are used according to the 
formuls below. The details, briefly stated, are as follows ; all ma- 
terial being designated by volume. 

144. For cavities in swaying branches: — l part asphaltum to 3 to 
4 parts sawdust. Moisten tools in crude oil. 

145. For cavities in trunks: — i part asphaltum to 5 to 6 parts of 
sawdust. Moisten tools with crude oil. Stir sawdust into hut 
melted asphaltum until desired consistency is reached. Distribute 
sawdust, as added, evenly over surface of vessel to avoid boiling 
over. Apply in cavities while still hot. No joints or sheet paper 
separations are required as in cement fillings. If surfaces of fillings 
are irregular or lack uniformity of color, coat them with gas tar or 
liquid asphaltum. 

* Circular 150, Ohio Agricultural E.xperiment Station. 



166 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 

In the preparation of cavities to be filled with sawdust and 
asphahum, as with cement, or to be rendered antiseptic without fill- 
ing, it is recommended that the decayed parts be removed to sound 
wood. This involves removal of all soft and rotten material ; some- 
what deeper cutting away seems advisable in shade trees than in 
fruit trees. It is further recommended that the interior surfaces 
be rendered sterile by applications of corrosive sublimate, carbo- 
lineum or kerosene. It is not advisable to use creosote, because it 
is too penetrating for use next to living parts. The thoroughness 
with which the work of removal and disinfection is done will very 
largely determine the success of the fillings made. 

In case of very large cavities filled with asphaltum-sawdust mix- 
ture, it may be desirable to use an outer screen of close wire netting 
or of poultry netting. In any case the outer line of the filling will 
be kept more uniform by some surface, as of oil-coated wood or 
metal, against which pressure is exerted as the filling is made. 
Finally, the irregular and general surface of the filling may be 
coated properly and successfully with gas tar or liquid asphaltum ; 
either of these is a proper dressing for any border surfaces that 
may have been cut to secure contact with the filling. 

It is to be noted that the solid asphaltum referred to in materials 
is that derived from the refining of petroleum with an asphaltum 
base. It can be stored and shipped in iron drums. In recent years 
it has been used for filling the interstices of street pavements, and 
for many other purposes. 



CHAP'ri':i>: ix 

PRUNING NURSERY STOCK* 

Digging stock destroys roots. Were it possible to dig 
such plants with all the root area intact and to place it 
where desired without loss of any of this area, there 
would be no check to growth. Hence every effort should 
be made in digging to approach this ideal as nearly as 
possible, for thus will success be greater. As already 
shown, roots extend far in each direction from the base 
of the stems, often farther than the spread of the branches 
on one side plus the length of the trunk. That is, a tree 
with a trunk 4 feet high and a spread of 3 feet on each 
side of the trunk would extend its roots usually at least 
7 feet on each side, and thus cover a circular area fully 14 
feet in diameter. Examples that prove this are locust 
and poplar, which often send up suckers farther away 
from the main trunk than the height of the trunk plus 
the spread of the branches on one side. 

This fact shows one reason why losses of newly set 
trees improperly transplanted arc so great ; so great a 
quantity of the most important roots — the feeding area — 
is lost in ordinary digging that the trees can't recover. 
Such losses may, however, be prevented to a very large 
extent. In experimental practice they have been reduced 
to almost nothing. From what has been said (Chapter 
II) the reasons for reducing the top are evident. A word. 
however, must be said concerning the roots. As or- 
dinarily dug and delivered by the nurseryman, they are 
more or less mangled, split, bruised or otherwise injured, 
for the most part unavoidably. If planted just as received 
they will grow, to be sure, but better results will be se- 

* The trimming of young trees in the nursery rows is discussed in the author's 
book, Plant Propagation, Greenhouse and Nursery Practice, Page 279. 

167 



168 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



cured if they are pruned. For this work nothing equals 
sharp pruning shears or a heavy sharp knife. Special 
emphasis is laid upon the "sharp," because the cleaner 
the cut the better. The work consists in cutting off all 
injured roots just above the wounds so as to have clean 
surfaces to develop good calluses and new roots (Fig. 119). 
About two decades ago the horticultural world was 
much stirred by the Stringfellow or stub-root method, a 

"horticultural heresy," 
as to the trimming of 
nursery trees for trans- 
planting. 

The great apostle of 
this system, the late 
H. M. Stringfellow, a 
prominent horticultur- 
ist of Texas, advised 
that the roots of nursery 
trees be cut to mere 
stubs a few inches long 
and the tops to sticks 
or whips. In some 
cases absolutely no 
stumps of roots were 
left below ground and 
none of limbs above, 
the "tree" when thus 
pruned sometimes being jammed into a hole made in the soil 
with a crowbar! One distinct advantage is thus gained — 
planting requires a minimum of time ! A modification of the 
method is to leave stubs of roots an inch to perhaps 4 
inches long on the main root axis, and perhaps a few 
stubs of branches if specially well placed. Tests at a 
large number of experiment stations show that the 
method was sometimes an all-around advantage, some- 
times the reverse. Doubtless the plan cannot be gen- 
erally recommended. At any rate it has fallen into "in- 




FIG. 119— WHERE NEW ROOTS START 
The roots of this Kieffer pear tree were 
cut back at planting time. The following 
spring (a year later) the tree had developed 
new roots as shown. Note that most of them 
appear near the cut ends of the old roots. 
The injuries were caused by careless digging. 
Roots so injured should be cut back just above 
the wounds so as to leave clean, smooth sur- 
faces which will heal over better and quicker 
than will ragged and badly dried tissues. 



PRUNING NURSERY STOCK 



169 



nocuous desuetude," and except as an interesting theory 
it is rarely discussed today. 

146. Advantages of Stringfellow system. — The main 
points chiimed by Mr. Stringfellow for the stub-root sys- 
tem of pruning are as follows : 1. The saving in hole dig- 




FIG. 120— VARIOUS GRADES OF PEACH TREES 

Caliper (left to right) No. 1, 7A inch; No. 2, 34 inch; No. 3, 5i inch; 

No. 4, y^ inch; No. 5, ^ inch. 

ging; 2, saving in freight to purchaser if trees are root 
and top pruned at the nursery ; 3, corresponding saving 
in charge for packing ; 4, saving to nurserymen in taking 
up trees for shipments; 5, reducing to a minimum, 
through the removal of most of the roots, the danger of 



170 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 




FIG. 121 
YEARLING PEACH WITH 
CENTRAL LEADER 



spreading all kinds of fungous dis- 
eases and insects; 6, enabling two 
and even three-year-old trees to be 
used for planting as advanta- 
geously as one-year-old trees, thus 
saving losses to nurserymen, who 
ordinarily burn such trees. 

Stringfellow* holds that the usual ill 
success in transplanting the pecan is due 
entirely to leaving too long a top root. 
He advises cutting this rout to 4 or 5 
inches and setting the tree at least 6 inches 
deeper than before it was taken up. 

The main peach plat used in the ex- 
periments conducted by H. N. Starnsf to 
test the Stringfellow plan presented on 
the whole as tine an appearance as any 
two-year-old peach orchard the writer 

[Mr Starns] has ever seen. The trees at the time averaged 12 to 

1.5 feet in height and bore considerably over 300 crates upon one acre. 
It may be stated that the writer [Mr. 

Starns] is fairly satisfied that peach trees, 

pruned by the Stringfellow methocl, will 

live and flourish in Georgia, even in stif? 

clay soil and under adverse meteorological 

conditions. This statement may also be 

extended to cover apples and cherries. 

Dr. J. C. Whitten concludes from ex- 
periments and from reports of growers 

that the method of stub-root pruning and 

cutting back to 12 to 18 inches, according 

to the Stringfellow plan, has been of 

great service in showing that it is not 

necessary to retain anything like the large 

quantity of fibrous roots formerly sup- 
posed to be necessary. 

In the year book of the Netherland 

Pomological Society§ for 1902, A. C. Ide 

reports experiments on severe pruning of 

young apple and pear trees at time of 

transplanting. He used one, two and 




FIG. 122 — AFTER PRUN- 
ING TREE IN FIG. 121. 



* Texas Farm and Ranch, 24, Page 10. 

t Georgia Experiment Station, Bulletin 40. The reader will here find a series 
of half-tones illustrating the discussion on the experiments and also numerous 
articles quoted from the agricultural press, giving both favorable and unfavorable 
comment on the theory. 

§ Cultura, 14, Page 424, 



PRUNING NURSERY STOCK 



171 



three-year-old trees. One-half of each lot were transplanted 
in the usual way ; others had their roots pruned to mere stocks. 
Trees in the first lot started off more vigorously in the spring, hut 
before the end of June the closely pruned trees were larger than the 
others, and this lead was maintained throughout the season. When 
the trees were dug the closely pruned ones had developed much better 
root systems than the others. 




FIG. 123— HOW TOP OF NEWLY SET TREE MAY BE PRUNED 
The top of a tree should he pruned immediately after planting. Most orchardists 
do not prune enough. On the left the tree is shown as received from nursery; in 
the center as ordinarily but insufficiently pruned; on the right pruned much better. 
The branches should be farther apart to make for strength. Better leave the 
lowest and the highest in this case, cut out the others and develop new ones upon 
the leader as seen in the left-hand picture. 

147. When to prune nursery tree tops. — While the 
roots may be pruned prior to carrying the trees to the 
field, it is conceded to be best practice to prune the tops 
after the trees have been planted. \\^hen pruned prior to 



172 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



taking to the field injuries may occur in the handling, 
and the very parts most prized may be lost. When 
pruned after planting the head may not only be started 
to best advantage at the desired height, but there is a 
better chance of having the branches in good condition 
as well as having a larger number among which to 
choose. Always in doing such pruning the feet should 
be placed one on each side of the trunk and the cuts made 
from below upward with a keen-edged knife. When trees 
are transplanted in autumn, the pruning should be say 6 
inches beyond the point where the frame limbs are de- 




FIG. 124— EFFECT OF WIND ON UNSTAKED TREES. WINDBREAK NEEDED 
Only by the most careful pruning can these trees be balanced and then only 
with the greatest difficulty. Staking would have helped many of them. 

sired, because there may be more or less winterkilling. 
The final pruning should be given just before growth 
starts in the spring. (Compare 121.) 

148. Lengths of nursery tree trunks. — Because tree 
planters in the past have generally called for trees with 
trunks of certain lengths the nurserymen have pruned 
ofif the lower limbs, especially when the trees were to be 
sold when two years old. Formerly the height of the 



I'RUNING NURSERY STOCK 



173 




FIG. 125 
PEACH OF POOR FORM 
This one-year tree failed to de- 
velop well-placed branches on the 
main trunk. Compare Fig. 126. 



trunk was 4 to 5 feet ; during 
the first decade of this century 
3 to 4, because low-headed 
trees are steadily gaining in 
popularity. Still more recently 
certain nurserymen have been 
heading their trees still lower 
or in some cases allowing prac- 
tically all of the lower limbs to 
grow (Figs. 195, 200). The 
distinct advantage of this prac- 
tice is that the purchaser may 
start the head just where he 
happens to want it. 

149. Trimming trees at trans- 
planting time. — Because such 
a large proportion of the root 
system is left in the soil when 
nursery trees and shrubs are 
dug, even when the trees are 
most carefully lifted, it is nec- 
essary to establish a new bal- 



ance between top and root. First, how- 
ever, all torn, dead and injured roots 
should be pruned back by clean cuts 
through living parts of these roots. A 
knife makes a clean job, but shears do 
quicker work. Both implements should 
be keen-edged. On the roots slanting 
wounds which face downward are sup- 
posed to heal more quickly than those 
facing upward or to one side. Second, 
the top must be considerably reduced, 
otherwise the trees may suffer, be slow 
to establish themselves. Often they fig. 126 

die. Peaches are usually trimmed to Th7same'\VeT'2?in 
a mere whip, but apples, pears and Trunk hasbee?cut'!>"t'! 





/ 
/ 



174 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



Other trees do not seem to be able to stand quite such 
severe handling. Always a goodly number of robust buds 
should be left to develop the frame branches. Some of 
these may be upon the main stem, others upon the stubs 
of the branches developed in the nursery. 

"Whip" pruning and "stub" pruning have each their 
advocates. The former is the more popular with and 
applicable to yearling trees, and since one-year trees are 
steadily gaining in popularity, this method is the more 
important. It consists in leaving nothing but the original 




FIG. 127— YOUNG TREES PROPERLY HEELED IN FOR TEMPORARY STORAGE 

When received too early for planting, nursery stock should be properly cared 
for. "Heeling in" keeps the roots moist and insures growth when the trees are 
planted in the field. 

stem — no branches at all — and shortening this to the de- 
sired height. During the first season the tree "feathers 
out" or develops many twigs, among which may be sev- 
eral properly placed to form the head. 

When the nursery trees are sturdy and have several 
branches, the stub method may be used, the head being 
started at the heis:ht desired. This method leaves one to 



PRl'MNC Xl'RSERV STOCK 



175 




FIG. 128 
YEAR1.1NU PEACH BEFORE PRUNING 
This tree was cut back to 18 inches when 

set, but did not develop any branches near 

the top. 



three 1)U(ls on such 
branches as may be 
well enough placed to 
form the head, the bal- 
ance of the wood being 
cut ofif. While five 
branches are generally 
advised, yet it is often 
better to start with six 
or eight, spaced as far 
apart as possible. 
Should an accident oc- 
cur, the injured branch 
may be cut out and yet 
not spoil the top. 
Should no injury occur, 
the inferior limbs may 
be removed when such 

danger has passed and the trees are beginning to settle 

d o w n to business. 

This i)lan is generally 

more successful than 

that of trying to de- 
velop a new frame 

limb where too few 

have been started or 

one has been lost. Prac- 
tical orchardists are by 

no means unanimous 

in their methods of 

starting the head. It 

niay be said that suc- 
cess may follow each 

method — and no 

method — as has been 

shown rif)!) by the m^. i29-same tree as in fig. 

Rhode Island Experi- after being pruned 



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.' )fflf*hc ^</fl .., ■''^S 


1^^ 



128 



176 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 





FIG. 131— DESIRABLE FORM OF GROWTH 

MADE BY TREE HEADED ABOUT 

2 FEET WHEN SET 



FIG. 130 

UNDESIRABLE FORM 

Tree was headed 3 feet 

high when set. 

mcnt Station* (Figs. 
137 to 144). Even 
second-grade trees 
may, with some ex- 
tra work, be made to produce fairly well-formed heads, 
as has been shown by the Colorado Experiment Station 
in the following- condensed account. 

150. Actual experience pruning young trees. — Paddock presents an 
interesting discussion of some photographs (from which drawings 
are herewith reproducedf), to fix the points of the various stages 
of pruning in the reader's mind. His article is condensed as follows: 

The trees were second grade and evidently three years old when 
planted. The lower laterals had all been pruned away in the nurs- 
ery, so the tops were much too high for Colorado. There was also 
difficulty in getting branches to form at suitable places to make the 
selections for the head. However, the results are much better than 
if the tops had been left as received from the nursery, as is so often 
done. 

The trees 1, 2 and 3 in Figure 132 were headed back to about 24 
inches in April. Had there been any laterals below tliis point they 
would have been pruned liack to single buds, so clusters of leaves 
might have formed and thus provided some shade for the trunks. 

* Annual Re-ort, 1901. 
t Colorado Bulletin 106. 





FIG. 132— DEVELOPING TOPS ON SECOND CLASS TREES (see text) 



178 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



The pictures show how the trees looked in the following April at 
the time of the first pruning. No. 1 had formed five vigorous 
branches, No. 2 produced four and No. 3 but two. 

The five branches on No. 1 were saved to form a framework for 
the tree and were cut back to about one foot. These are well dis- 
tributed about the trunk, but are too close together. The lowest 
limb might well be double the distance from the top. No. la shows 
No. 1 after it was pruned, with the idea of making an open-centered 
tree. 

In No. 3 the limbs are too close. All of these were saved to form 
the framework of a tree, with a leader, as is shown in No. 2a. The 
only difference between this and No. la is that the topmost branch 
was left longer than the others. The pruner of this tree carelessly 
allowed three vigorous limbs to grow . 
from near the surface of the ground, for 
they could serve no useful purpose, but 
only rob the other limbs of plant food. 
Such growths are best prevented by 
pinching off the buds early in the season. 

No. 3 failed to throw out enough 
branches to form a suitable top. The two 
produced are nearly opposite, so a bad 
crotch would soon result. Both branches 
were cut back to the second bud, as shown 
in a, in hope of inducing dormant buds 
to push out lower down. At the close 
of the second season the pruned trees had 
made a growth respectively as shown in 
lb, 2b and 3b. 

Pruning results are shown in Ic, 2c 
and 3c. Tree No. 1 is shown in Ic. 
One of the frame limbs seemed super- 
fluous, so it was removed and the new 
growth, shown in lb, was cut back about 
one-half. The few side shoots were each 
cut back to a single bud, with the idea of 
developing fruit spurs during the second 
year, when numerous branches should de- 
velop on all of the limbs. As a rule two 
of the best placed of these secondary 
limbs will be selected on each of tlie main 
limbs to form additional framework. The 
rest may be removed or cut back to de- 
velop fruit spurs as may seem desirable. 

The form of the tree, then, should be ■"''■ '^3 

developed at the beginning of the third WELL-BRANCHED NURS 
season, and subsequent pruning should be c r\^m 1^' LIMBS^ "are 
directed toward retaining this shape, cut- placed. 




PRUNING Nl'RSERV STOCK 



179 





FIG. 134. 
WHERE TO CUT 
Same tree as shown 
in Fig. 133. Ttie cross 
marks indicate where 
the limbs should be cut 
off when the tree is set. 



FIG. 135— HOW TO PLANT A TREE 
It is important to work the soil among the 
pruned roots and then to pack it down hard 
by trampling so as to bring every part of 
the root in contact with the moist earth and 
prevent the formation of air spaces. 



ting back excessive growths and thinning 
and renewing the bearing wood. 

The pruning of tree No. 2 is much the 
same, except that a leader is being developed. 
Although the top of 2c was cut back the same as tree No. 1, the 
topmost branch is developing into a vigorous central shaft. The 
first set of frame limbs has formed and a second set is to be de- 
veloped at a suitable distance above. The new growth is to be cut 
back. 

The tree shown in the series 3 to 3c is, so far, pretty much of 
a failure. The severe heading given it in the spring following set- 
ting failed to make branches develop lower down. It would have 
been a better plan to insert two or three buds at suitable points 
around the main stem in June of that year. This can probably be 
done next June, but the chance for success is not so great. Limbs 
can be developed by this means just where wanted, but the average 
person will succeed better with trees which do not require such 
manipulation. 

151. Methods of tree planting. — An experiment to test 



180 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 




various methods of tree planting 
was conducted by F. W. Card* and 
the results of one season's growth 
shown and described. Ten two- 
year Northern Spy trees were 
planted by each of the methods as 
follows : 1, Trimmed to whips and 
cut back to about 3 feet ; 2, trimmed 
to whips and the leader left un- 
touched; 3, branches cut back half, 
leader left; 4, untrimmed. In all of 
these cases the roots were left un- 
trimmed unless injured or decayed at 
the end, in which case they were cut 
back to sound wood. 5, Roots un- 
trimmed; 6, roots cut back half; 
7, roots cut back to mere stub. The 
tops of trees 5, 6 



FIG. 136 — AIR SPACE 
AMONG ROOTS OF 
BADLY PLANTED TREE 



and 7 were treated 
as in No. 3. 8, 
Stringfellow 
method, the roots being cut back to a 
mere stump 1 or 2 inches long, and the 
tree to about a foot high. In the spring 
of the fourth year following, representa- 
tive trees in each lot were photo- 
graphed (Figs. 138 to 144) and the fol- 
lowing notes taken : 

1. Whips with leader cut back (Fig. 
144). Good trees and for the most part 
well branched. Their greatest defect 
is in the long, spindling growth which 
has resulted from lack of pruning. 
Heads have formed at 2 to 3 feet from 
the ground. 2. Whips with leader un- 




FIG. 137— TREE SET 
OBLIQUELY AGAINST 
WIND 
In regions of high 
winds plant the trees 
with the tops leaning 
toward the wind as 
shown here. On hill- 
sides lean them uphill. 



* Rhode Island Experiment Station Report 1901, Page 238. 



PRUNING NURSERY STOCK 



181 



touched (Fig. 143). These trees do not average so well 
as those in the previous lot. Most of them do not have 
good branches low down, the real heads having formed 
.") or 6 feet from the ground, though in some cases the 
Unvcr branches will make good heads. These trees seem 
to be the most undesirable ones in the experiment. 
3. Branches cut back half, roots unpruned (Fig. 1-42). 
Good trees, with uniform heads about 3 feet from the 
grround. The heads well balanced and trees well formed. 





FIG. 138— TREE GROWN FROM 
UNTRIMMED NURSERY STOCK 



FIG. 138a— TREE FROM 
"STRINGFELLOWED" ROOTS 



4. Branches untrimmed, roots untrimmed (Fig. 140). 
Good trees. A few seem rather slender, but most are 
excellent. Heads formed about as in Fig. 138. Growth 
not quite so good on the average. 5. Branches cut back, 
roots untrimmed (Fig. 138), a counterpart of Fig. 140. 
Very similar in appearance to Fig. 140. Growth a trifle 
better, heads well formed (Fig. 141). 6. Branches cut 
back and roots cut back (Fig. 141). More uneven in 



182 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



growth than the other lots, but much the same hi gen- 
eral habit, 7. Branches cut back, roots cut by the String- 
fellow method (Fig. 139). Trees somewhat uneven. The 
lot contains one or two very fine trees, but no poor ones. 
8. Stringfellow method (Fig. 138a), These trees have made 
an excellent start. They will make well-formed trees, 
with heads just at the ground. Generally a large number 





FIG. 139— TREE GROWN FROM 
STUB-PRUNED ROOTS 



FIG. 140— TREE GROWN FROM 
UNTRIMMED NURSERY PLANT 



of branches start, and these in turn branch at about 30 
inches from the starting point. 

In these observations it should be remembered that 
the eye takes account of the tree as it stands, regardless 
of whether much or little wood was cut away at time of 
planting. The experiments show that under favorable 
conditions a tree will adjust itself to almost any kind of 
treatment and still make a good tree. For practical pur- 



PRUNING NURSERY STOCK 



183 



poses the most rational method seems to be to leave all 
sound roots and shorten baek the tops, which not only 
helps to bring about a proper balance between root and 
leaf, but also improves the subsequent character of 
growth of the tree. 

152. Low-headed trees ha\e so much to commend them 
that they are annually becoming more popular. To se- 





FIG. 141 

HEAD ON TREE WHERE ROOTS 

WERE CUT BACK 



FIG. 142— AT PLANTING TIME 

THE BRANCHES WERE 

CUT BACK 



cure them it is advisable to buy from nurserymen who 
make a specialty of such trees or to purchase only year- 
ling stock, because the heads on such stock may be started 
as low as desired. In the former case all that is necessary 
is to thin out and cut back the top as may be desired. 
In the latter the "switches" for the "trees" are little more 
than that, have their bud systems intact, therefore the 



184 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 





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FIG. 143— TREE GROWN FROM 

A "WHIP" WITH THE 

LEADER LEFT 



FIG. 144 — HEAD FORMED BY 

"WHIP" WITH LEADER 

CUT BACK 



head may be started any- 
where. Trees which na- 
turally grow erect, at least 
on the start — apple, sweet cherry and pear — may be 
headed at 18 to 24 inches from the ground; and those 
smaller growing, more spreading trees, such as the stone 
fruits, other than sweet cherries, may be headed 6 or even 
more inches lower. This pruning must be done im- 
mediately after the trees have been set. If delayed for a 
year the chance to get a good, low head will have been 
lost; for no attention will make up for the neglect to do 
the work at the proper time. 

During the first summer practically all the buds will 
start and the "whips" will "feather out" abundantly. 



PRUNING NURSERY STOCK 185 

Every leaf and twig should be allowed to develop to its 
fullest extent without let or hindrance (except as out- 
lined in 165, 166 and 1(59) because this green stuff will 
help to establish a sturdy trunk and a strong root area. 
Root action depends on leaf action (Chapter II). The 
following spring will be soon enough to do any cutting. 
Then, among the often broom-like tops, the desired num- 
ber of twigs may be selected to form the frame limbs. 
From this time forward the pruning and training may 
be done as recommended by Lewis (Chapter X). 



CHAPTER X 
PRUNING YOUNG TREES* 



153. Disappointments attributed to pruning.! — Many 
orchardists growing" young trees have been disappointed 
with the results obtained from pruning. While these dis- 
appointments may be due, on the one hand, to a lack of 
knowledge of fundamental principles which underly prun- 
ing, on the other hand, we believe much of the dissatis- 
faction is because the grower has expected too much from 

pruning alone, and has 
failed to realize the im- 
portance of other or- 
chard practices — irriga- 
tion, tillage, mainten- 
ance of soil fertility, 
etc. 

No matter how skill- 
fully we prune for 
fruitfulness, unless we 
have such soil condi- 
tions as to furnish suffi- 
cient food and moisture 
at the right time to de- 
velop good, strong 
buds, we cannot expect 
to secure satisfactory 
results. Again, we 
must realize that soil. 




FIG. 145~BADLY FORMED TREE HEAD 
Never start the main limbs in this manner. 
They should issue in a spiral whorl with 4 to 
12 or 15 inches between one limb and the 
next one above. Such an arrangement will 
prevent bad crotches and will greatly 
strengthen the tree. 



* Paragraphs 153 to 177 have been somewhat condensed from the article by 
Professor C. I. Lewis in Bulletin No. 130, of the Oregon Experiment Station. With 
s'ight modifications, indicated in brackets or cross referenced to other parts of this 
volume by the present author, the methods apply to a very considerable area of the 
United States and Canada. 

t As noted in paragraph 172 the directions given in paragraphs 153 to 172 apply 
chiefly to apple pruning, but also to all deciduous fruits and nuts. Specific direc- 
tions for these other fruits are in paragraphs 173 to 177. 



PRUNING YOUNG TREES 



187 



elevation, and climate are factors which have a very close 
relation to pruning-. Likewise, the variety question is al- 
ways to be taken into consideration. For example, the 
pruning of the Jonathan in southern Idaho, at an altitude 
of 2,000 feet, on a silt loam, is a different problem from 
that of pruning Yellow Newtown in western Oregon on 





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FIG. 14&— MAIN BRANCHES BARREN BECAUSE OF NEGLECT 

This old Italian Prune tree has not been pruned for years. The frame and 
lower branches have become barren through the dying of the fruit spurs which 
were too much shaded by the thick, bushy top. This top consists largely of long, 
slender, weak fruit spurs and fruiting branches like those in Fig. 168. 



188 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



a heavy soil at an elevation of 100 feet (80). While the 
principles underlying the pruning of these two trees may 
be the same, the application may be radically different. 

We need, first, to form a clear understanding of what 
these principles are, and, second, to study more closely 
than we ever have in the past their application to our 
individual orchards. 




FIG. 147— OLD BARTLETT FRUIT SPURS WHICH BLOOM YEARLY BUT 
SELDOM BEAR FRUIT 
At a are spurs which bloomed but set no fruit. Some of them have produced 
blossom buds for next year. At b are scars where fruits probably set and in the 
cases of the larger scars possibly ripened. Perhaps, however, some of these are 
scars left by twigs which died. 

154. Three types of trees are grown in the North- 
west : the so-called open, globe or vase-shaped tree, the 
center leader type, and the modified leader type. 

154a. In the vase or open tree three to five branches are 
chosen to form the framework of the tree ; any tendency 
of a branch to assume the lead is suppressed ; no leader 
being allowed to grow. Each of the three to five branches 
is given equal prominence in the tree. This tree was 
borrowed from the French and has been modified in this 
country to suit our special needs. For example, in parts 



PRUNING VOUNG TREES 



189 



of the Middle West and in California the tree is allowed 
to carry a large number of laterals, summer pruning or 
shearing being employed to force out more laterals so 
as to shade the branches from sun scald. A dense com- 
pact tree is the result. In the Pacific Northwest the term 
"globe" or "vase" is seldom used, but almost always the 
term employed is the "open" tree. Instead of shearing 
to produce shade, growers prune out and keep the tree 





FIG. 148 

YOUNG YELLOW NEWTOWN 

TREE BEFORE AUGUST 

PRUNING 



FIG. 149 

AFTER AUGUST PRUNING 

YOUNG YELLOW 

NEWTOWN 



open to admit more light. The general framework, how- 
ever, of California and Oregon types is the same. 

Our orchardists claim that the advantage of the open 
tree is that it allows more light to enter the tree, thus 
causing a better coloring of the fruit ; and second, it pro- 
duces a tree, broad, spreading and easy to keep low 
headed. The objections to this tree are: First, it is 
generally structurally weak, since the scaffold branches 
issue at one point, thus making weak crotches. If one 
branch breaks out the tree may be ruined. Second, it 
is used too generally; it is not adapted to all vaiietics 



190 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



under all conditions fovnid in the Pacific Northwest [or 
elsewhere]. 

155. The so-called leader tree has been used largely in 
the East on the Atlantic Seaboard, and is used somewhat 
on the Pacific Coast, especially in British Columbia. There 
are a few orchards in the Pacific Northwest where the 
growers believe the leader to be the best type. With the 
leader tree, since the center branch is always allowed 
to have the ascendency, the tree grows more or less to 
the true pyramid. The growers obtain very large trees, 
which are, however, very difficult to keep low headed 
and open. The trees are probably stronger, there being 
less breakage from this type of tree than from the so- 
called open tree. 




FIG. 150— VIGOROUS SHOOT PRODUCED FROM OLD BARTLETT PEAR SPUR 

The shoot was pruned and is now in healthy condition. Note the number of 

fruit buds at a. 

156. The modified leader. — In this type we start the 
trees exactly as though wc were going to grow the center 
leader, but, beginning with the second to the fifth year, 
the leader is suppressed. The advantages are that this 
type of tree allows us to space the branches well, to build 
strong crotches and main frame limbs, and at the same 
time keeps the tree relatively close to the ground. This 
type is growing in favor where it has been tried through- 
out the Northwest. 

With any of these types, weak trees or strong trees 
may be built, and also bushy or open trees may be se- 
cured with any one of the three systems. [It depends 
upon the handling.] 



PRUNING YOUNG TREES 



191 



157. Form of tree often due to local whim. — The type 
of growth of trees in one's locality may determine to a 
certain degree what system shall be used. For example, 
Oregon growers wouldn't grow Wagener ordinarily as 
an open type of tree. It is rather an upright grower for 
a few years, but later becomes a feeble grower. On the 
other hand, they 
should not think oi 
growing varieties 
like T o m p k i n s 
King or Northern 
Spy as center trees, 
since these trees 
shoot up too 
straight, are too big 
and too hard to 
control. Yellow 
Newtown is too 
often pruned as a 
typical open tree. 
On light soils it be- 
comes very weak 
when 12 or 15 years 
old. A modified 
leader, or in some 
cases even the old- 
fashioned leader, 
would be better 
with Yellow New- 
town. On the other 
hand, on some very 
strong loams, Yel- 
low Newtown can be handled very satisfactorilv when 
grown as an open or globe-shaped tree, provided a little 
care is taken in spacing the branches carefully the first 
two or three years. 
158. The height of head is only a relative term. One 




FIG. 151 
HEAVY HEADING BACK DEVELOPS WOOD 

Young vase- formed apple tree which shows the 
effects of very heavy heading back. In this case 
the pruner cut back to two-year and three-year 
wood. Fruit spurs that had started to form were 
forced into shoots. The entire energies of the 
tree have been temporarily turned into shoot 
formation. The age of bearing has probably been 
delayed two years by this treatment. 



192 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 





H(J. 152— TYPlCAl, LEADER TREE 
Five-year-old Winter Nelis pear begun as 
an open center, but typical of the leader type 
of training. The lower branches are not 
keeping pace with the upper and are becom- 
ing weak in comparison. To save or restore 
balance the upper branches must be suppressed. 



FIG. 153 — THREE DECKS OF 
FRAME LIMBS 
Note distances between decks 
and the general stocky appearance 
of the tree. 

man would say that 30 
inches will make a low- 
headed tree; another 
that this is extremely 
high. The Pacific Coast 
grows low-headed trees. 
Experience has shown 
that these are the easiest to care for, that they are the 
most economical for thinning, harvesting, spraying and 
pruning, and that we can shade the trunks and main 
scafifold limbs better with this type of tree, than with a 
high-headed tree. In parts of the Inland Empire growers 
often head their trees at 8 or 9 inches. Many Jonathan 
trees in the Rocky Mountain district, and in certain por- 
tions of Idaho, eastern Oregon and Washington, are 
headed in this way and are giving satisfactory results. 
Under such conditions they must protect the trees as 



PRUNING YOUxNG TREKS 



193 





FIG. 154 

MODIFIED LEADER 

Five-year Bartlett pear 

after pruning. 



FIG. 155 
MODIFIED LEADER 
Same tree as Fig. 
154 pruned. Note how 
little wood has been 
removed in thinning 
out; almost no heading 
bacic. 




FIG. 156 

GOOD MODIFIED 

LEADER 

Five-year Bartlett pear 

before pruning. 



much as possible against sun scald. 
In ^^'estern Oregon 20 to 25 inches is 

considered a better height of head. Many growers have 
felt that 20 to 25 inches is the proper height for apples and 
pears. Peaches should be headed as low as they can be 
grown ; cherries at about 25 inches ; prunes 30 to 35 inches. 
It was formerly believed that walnuts should be headed 
very high, 7 or 8 feet, and no laterals allowed to 
grow the first few years ; but this is now considered a 
mistake. About 35 inches will make a splendid head for 
walnuts. 

159. Season for pruning. — In the Northwest, only two 
seasons for pruning are considered ; namely, winter and 
summer. There is no question that in the Northwest, 
where mild winter conditions prevail, winter pruning may 
be done safely in most years at any time when the trees 
are dormant. In sections of severe winter conditions, de- 
laying the pruning as late as possible before the growth 
starts in the spring seems to be wisest. Very rarely good 



194 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



fruit growers would advise fall pruning in the Northwest, 
unless one has such a large acreage that it is impossible 
to complete the work unless the pruning is commenced 
early in the season. If it becomes necessary to prune 





FIG. 157 
MODIFIED LEADER 
This splendid type of 
modified leader tree, a 
five-year-old Wagener 
apple, was summer 
pruned in July and 
photographed in Janu- 
ary. Note the amount 
of after-growth. Th's 
indicates that the tree 
was pruned at about 
the right period. 

trees in fall or very 
early winter, growers 
prune the older trees 
first, leaving the 
younger ones for the 
last. We should cau- 
tion against pruning 
trees when they are 
frozen. Much heart rot and die-back have resulted from 
pruning frozen trees. It is possible to prune trees some- 
what even after they come out fully in the spring. 

160. Three lessons in pruning young trees. — Pruning 



FIG. 158 
EXAMPLE OF UNEQUAL GROWTH 

Branch A is growing at the expense of the 
other branches. It should therefore be sup- 
pressed. 



PRUNING YOUNG TREES 195 

young trees depends upon three i;reat fundamental i)rin- 
eiples. If these are mastered the problem of pruning' 
young" trees will become ratiier simple, but unless they 
arc mastered it is difficult to develop strong, well- 
balanced young trees. 

161. Choosing and spacing the frame branches. — For 
an open or a modified leader type of tree, four or five 
branches are recommended. [In eastern practice many 
growers start with six to eight, but prune out some of 
these after the head has been fairly well developed ; say 
when the trees are 5 to 10 years old.] For the 
typical leader tree it does not make much difiference, as 
from year to year new branches are added. In Oregon 




FIG. 159 

GOOD VEGETATIVE RESPONSE FROM THINNING BARTLETT PEAR SPURS 

Note the numerous fruit buds at s on spurs which did not push into long branches; 

terminal buds at t and axillary fruit buds at a on one-year shoots. 

the four or five-branched tree is preferred. While it may 
be true that the three-branched tree will produce three 
branches that average larger in diameter than if four or 
five are allowed to grow, nevertheless, the three- 
branched tree is considered a dangerous one; that it 
is structurally weak; that if one of the three branches is 
lost the tree is practically ruined ; whereas, with four or 
five frame limbs, one may lose a branch and still balance 
the tree in such a way as to save it. [This is the main 
idea with the eastern growers who start with more than 
the required number of frame limbs.] 



196 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



The first lesson, then, is to choose four or five well- 
spaced branches, having them issue in a spiral around 
the tree, if possible, and having them as far apart as they 
can he conveniently spaced [not less than a handbreadth, 
preferably two handbreadths or more]. The farther 

apart they are spaced, 
the stronger and better 
will be the trunk and 
the better the tree ob- 
tained. To do this, one 
must not neglect the 
tree as soon as it is 
headed, but must watch 
it very carefully the 
first month or two after 
it is set out. It will be 
necessary to rub cer- 
tain undesirable buds 
off, to remove certain 
undesirable branches, 
or possibly to suppress 
from time to time cer- 
tain branches which 
tend to run away with 
the tree. By observing 
these simple rules one 
can build a stronger 
tree. It is for this rea- 
son that growers often 
advocate cutting the 
tree at 25 or 28 inches 
instead of at 20 inches 
at setting time, and then spacing the branches from 
as near the ground as they can get them up to the 
top of the trunk. However, if the tree is left to itself, 
the branches will all develop near the top of the trunk, 
and the tree will be weak. Only by careful watching can 




FIG. 160 
FIVE-YEAR-OLD WAGENER APPLE TREE 
This tree of less than average vigor was 
pruned in July. The photo was taken in 
October. Note that there has been practically 
no growth response as the result of pruning. 



PRUNING YOUNG TREES 



197 



the extra increase in height of 
head be made of any material 
advantag-e. 

162. Keep main branches 
properly dominant. — When one 
branch tends to grow at the 
expense of the rest of the tree 
the weaker branches gradually 
become side branches to the 
two or three remaining stronger 
ones. Proper pruning will 
obviate this. The average 
pruner does one of two things : 
cuts the tree level across the 
top, or cuts the weakest wood 
most and the strongest wood 
least. The former will never 
build a strong, well-balanced 
tree, because in doing this no 
attention is paid to the relation 
of one branch to another. [The 
other practice is erroneously 
based on the principle] that the 
more wood is cut, the more it 
grows (83). In other words, it 
is concluded that if wood is 
weak and is cut back it will 
grow stronger! 

It is true that the more a tree 
is pruned back as a whole while 
dormant the more will be the 
resulting growth ; that heavy 
heading-in of a tree during 
winter means a heavy after- 
growth. This, however, has to 
do with the tree as a whole and has little to do with the re- 
lation of one branch to another. If a strong branch is 




FIG. 161— HEADING BACK 
MAKES GROWTHS 

The lower left fork of this Yel- 
low Newtown apple tree was 
headed back rather severely, the 
upper right-hand one only mod- 
erately. From the former four 
shoots and three fruit spurs have 
developed; from the latter three 
shoots and nine spurs. This photo 
shows that heading back, whether 
heavy or light, tends to increase 
the amount of shoot growth in the 
tree. However, heavy heading 
back affords a greater stimulus to 
shoot formation and less to spur 
making than does moderate head- 
ing hack. 



198 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 




in close proximity to a 
weak one, the best way 
to strengthen the weak 
branch is by cutting 
back the strong one. 
The development of the 
weak branch will be in 
proportion to its leaf 
and branch area ; if 
there is a large amount, 
there will be a heavy 
demand on the sap, and 
the weak branch will 
develop. By limiting 
the Ijranches and leaves 
on the strong branch, 
growth is restricted. 
As a result, the follow- 
ing year there will be 
less discrepancy be- 
tween the development 
of the two branches. A 
continuation of the 
practice should lead to 
a balance between the 
two. The heading back 
should be done, then, not so much from the point of view 
of the tree as a whole, as from the point of view of the 
relation of one branch to another. 

Cut the strongest branch the hardest ; cut the second 
branch in vigor not quite so much ; the third in vigor still 
less, until the weakest branch is reached. Then cut that 
one least. It is only by suppressing the strong branches, 
limiting the number of leaves and buds, that one can pos- 
sibly hope to encourage the weaker branches. If it is 
desired to grow a modified tree, or a leader-type tree, 
the only difference that need be made in this pruning 



FIG. 162 
GOOD EFFECT OF JULY PRUNING 
This vigorous five-year Wagener aople tree 
was pruned in July and photographed in Oc- 
tober. A vigorous response of new shoots 
averaging a foot followed the trimming. 



PRUNING YOUNG TREES 



199 



would be to choose one branch for a k'adcr and not cut 
it back quite so heavily, to maintain that position. 

A great deal of so-called corrective pruning may be 
done. That is. a tree four or five years old may develop 
two branches weaker than the rest of the tree. These 
may be encouraged to grow stronger and larger. To do 
this, prune them very lightly, and prune the other parts 
of the tree more heavily so as to encourage the two 
weaker branches. 

163. Avoid sharp-angled, equally balanced crotches. — 
(Compare Figs. 163, 164.) Examine the average frame 
branch of a tree carefully, from the point where it leaves 
the main trunk up to 
its last year's growth. 
Its development will 
probably have been 
about as follows : The 
first year the branch 
was cut back it forced 
out laterals, all except 
two of which were re- 
moved. These two 
were cut equally and in 
most cases were not 
spaced very far apart. 
The next year on each 
of these the same treat- 
ment was repeated. 
Two branches were 
chosen and these w^ere 
cut equally. The re- 
sult is that the branches 
all over the tree are in 
pairs of equal length, fig. i63— good example of proper 
and form very sharp balance between branches 

r 1. r-p4 • ■• Note that whenever there is a crotch in 

lOrKS. i Ills makes most cases one branch is stronger than the 

weak branches which ^^h^-.^g^ A' a a are bad forks due to even 




200 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



will break easily, as the stress and strain all come at 
critical points ; namely, at the numerous balanced crotches. 
To avoid this condition, treat each of the main branches 
as a leader. This means that when two branches are 
chosen, they shall be as far apart as possible. Second, 
in pruning cut one harder than the other. Thus one 
will become a leader and the other a side branch. If this 

process is continued, 
the whole branch will 
become a strong leader 
with a great many side 
branches which dis- 
tribute the strain in 
such a way as to reduce 
breakage to a mini- 
mum. 

164. Classes of non- 
bearing trees. — For 
convenience of discus- 
sion, young and non- 
bearing trees may be 
divided into three 
classes. First, those 
from one to four years 
of age. This is the 
formative, the body- 
building period of the 
young tree. Second, 
the period from four to 
seven years of age, the 
critical age, a transition period from the body build- 
ing on the one hand to the heavy fruiting on the 
other. With Yellow Newtown, Baldwin, Winter Nelis, 
Cornice and many other trees, pruning at this time will, 
to a very large degree, determine the fruitfulness of the 
trees for a number of years. Third, those trees from 
seven to twelve years, which have reached the bearing age, 




FIG. 164 
BALANCED AND UNBALANCED PRUNING 
Note that at A A, equal cutting has resulted 
in nearly equal strength of branches; at B B, 
unequal cutting (the desirable method) has 
resulted in completely destroying such bal- 
ance by making stronger crotches. 




FIG. 165— REINVIGORATED TOP OF OLD PEAR TREE 

Dehorned Bartlett pear formed many new, strong shoots and fruit spurs above, but 
showed little change in spurs below. Thinning of top probably better. 



202 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



but as yet have not borne a commercial crop. Before 
taking up the details of pruning these three classes, sum- 
mer pruning and its relation to such trees should be con- 
sidered. 

165. Summer pruning young non-bearing trees. — Of 
recent years we have heard much about summer pruning, 
which, with many fruit growers, has become a fad. Many 
people are expecting too much from it. 




FIG. 166— MODERATE PRUNING STIMULATED SHOOT FORMATION 
In this old Tompkins King apple tree two and three years ago moderate prun- 
ing stimulated the formation of a rather large number of medium long shoots. 
These have not been headed back and have consequently developed large numbers 
of fruit spurs. Many of the small spur-bearing branches should now be removed 
to afford the remaining ones ample light throughout their length. Thinning out is 
more needed than heading back here, though a limited amount of heading back 
will tend to keep the tree from growing too high. 

In many cases not much pruning will be done during 
the first summer of the tree's life, as the trees often do 
not make very much growth the first season, but where 
they do make a vigorous growth by the middle of June, 
or early July, it will often be found an advantage to head 



PRUNING YOUNG TREES 



203 



the trees at that time, cutting them back about the same 
way as they might be cut back the following spring. 
That is, terminal growths 12 to 30 inches long should be 
cut back to the point where new laterals are desired for 
the future body-building of the tree. With a tree running 
to one or two branches at the expense of all the others, 
it may be well to pinch these strong branches, to hold 
them back for the time being, and thus encourage the 
weaker branches to grow. 




FIG. 167— PEAR SPURS WHICH HAVE BORNE WELL IN PREVIOUS YEARS 
At a are spurs which bloomed hut set no fruit, asain producing huds for the 
following season's crop. At b the same except that no fruit buds formed. 

By the second year, nearly all these trees can be greatly 
benefited by summer pruning any time from the latter 
part of May up to the middle of July, generally about the 
middle of June. This pruning consists of cutting back 
the rank terminal growth so as to force out and allow 
the laterals to make a good growth and become hardened 
before fall. In this way a whole year may be gained in 
forming the framework of the trees. A good practice to 



204 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



follow with such trees is to do most of the heading-back 
in June and most of the thinning out in March or April, 
or whenever the winter pruning is done. However, 
should the trees, after they are pruned in June, make such 
a rank growth that they need some topping-back again 
the following spring, by all means do it. 

In nearly all cases, it will be advisable to do some top- 
ping-back of the terminals, or else the terminal bud will 

incline to continue this 
growth, producing a 
long, leggy branch. If 
no topping is done in 
spring, it will be nec- 
essary to give these 
shoots a heavy heading- 
back in summer to pre- 
vent their becoming 
too long before produc- 
ing desirable laterals. 
During the summer 
any undesirable growth 
should be removed 
from these young trees 
— branches which will 
never be of any value 
to the tree and are 
growing at the expense of some branch which should be 
developed. Caution, however, must be exercised against 
the too strenuous thinning-out of young trees, especially 
the thinning-out of lateral branches. 

This pruning young trees, while it does not, as a rule, 
directly induce fruitfulness, will tend to bring the trees 
up to the critical period in much better condition than 
otherwise, since it tends to balance the tree ; and since it 
distributes the pruning over two periods of the year, it 
eliminates the necessity for very vigorous pruning which 
many fruit growers give trees. The heavy winter prun- 




FIG. 168— TOO MUCH SHADING BY UPPER 
BRANCHES KILLED THIS TWIG 
This old, much branched Italian Prune fruit 
spur is being starved by lack of light. Some 
of its branches are already dead; the living 
ones lack in vigor. Only a few fruit buds and 
these near the tips. Soon the whole spur will 
die as the result of too much shade from 
branches above. 



PRUNING YOUNG TREES 



205 



ing given young trees serves as a stimulus and often 
causes too much vegetative growth (83). 

166. Objections to summer pruning. — Some growers 
are opposed to summer pruning on the ground that it 
weakens the trees, that it is devitalizing, that it is unwise 
to remove any of the leaves as they are the "lungs" and 




FIG. 169— ABUNDANCE OF FRUIT SPURS IN THE LIGHT 
This limb in the upper part of an Italian Prune tree shows that the spurs have 
had abundant light. Note the individual spurs, and the small fruiting limbs are 
short, stocky and vigorous. However, it would be desirable to remove a few of the 
smaller branches to prevent too heavy shading of those below. 



206 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



manufacturing organs of the tree (29). It would be, 
however, only in very extreme cases that summer prun- 
ing would ever be devitalizing, certainly where one makes 
the single summer pruning. Such pruning, in some cases, 
might give increased vigor. In others very little differ- 
ence will be noted. In still others, the growth may be 
modified to the extent that there is less vegetative 
growth, but even in the last case there is modification 
rather than devitalization. 

The result of a single summer pruning, as recom- 
mended for these young trees, is not so much a question 
of vigor as it is a question of change in direction of 

growth or energy. The 
clipping-back of a ter- 
minal forces the growth 
into desirable, new lat- 
eral framework rather 
than into a useless, addi- 
tional terminnal growth. 
There are cases where 
frequent summer prun- 
ing at short intervals 
during the summer has a 
tendency to check or 
dwarf a tree; for ex- 
ample, in growing dwarf 
trees, we must not only 
have a dwarfing stock, 
but we must practice 
frequent pinching back 
of shoots (Chapter 
XVI). Again walnut 
trees may be dwarfed by 
FIG. 170— PARTIAL DEHORNING FAILED Temoval of all lateral 

Old Italian Prune tree partially dehorned grOWth for a period of 

four years ago. Note that the treatment ap- ,_,, , 

parently had little influence upon the vigor of yCars. 1 llCSC laSt tWO 

th-? small fruiting branches and indivHual „„^ 1 

fruit spurs of the limb not cut back. caSCS, nOWCVCr, are eX- 




PRUNING YOUNG TREES 



207 



treme and represent excessively frequent pruning. The 
greatest danger of devitalizing young trees does not come 
from a single summer pruning, but rather from allowing 
too heavy bearing of young trees. 

167. Trees four to seven years of age have now gone 
through their formative period. They should have good 
trunks and frame limbs, and should be approaching that 
period when they can begin to bear heavy crops. Sum- 
mer pruning for 
these trees, as com- 
pared with the 
younger trees, must 
be modified with 
the idea of trying 
to induce fruitful- 
ness directly if pos- 
possible. The prun- 
ing will generally 
come considerably 
later with these 
older trees. 

There is no defi- 
nite time to set. It 
is recommended, 
however, that the 
pruning be done at 
the time the termi- 
nal buds are form- 
ing on the ends of 
the shoots. Note 
that the leaves are 
beginning to get 
larger on the ends 
of the twigs, and 
the terminal buds 
are forming. At 
that time the termi- 




FIG. 171— HEAVY PRUNING MAKES FOR WOOD 
This five-year Yellow Newtown has been heavily 
pruned each year. Last year it received a light 
thinning out and a comparatively heavy heading 
back. When compared with Fig. 173, a tree of the 
same age and variety, it shows how heavy pruning 
tends to stimulate wood growth as opposed to fruit 
production. Note the comparatively few fruit spurs 
on the two-year wood. The tree has been com- 
pelled to devote its energies mainly to shoot for- 
mation. 



208 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



nal growth may be cut back to the point where it is de- 
sired to force out new laterals for another year's growth. 
The cutting at this time seems to cause a thickening of 
the branches, probably an accumulation of tissues around 
the buds. 

With some varieties, probably, it will lead to direct 
fruiting the following season ; with others, however, it 
will simply tend to keep the trees in balance, and prob- 
ably encourage earlier fruiting than would otherwise be 

true. That is, re- 
sults may come in 
two or three years 
rather than in one 
year. If this prun- 
ing is done at 
about the right 
time, very little 
secondary growth 
will take place, 
and what does will 
naturally be very 
small. Of course 
in many cases 
these trees, four 
to seven years of 
age, do not hard- 
en-up until late in 
September or even in October, and then it would be too 
late to do any pruning to advantage. Even though sum- 
mer pruning with these trees might not lead to an increase 
in fruiting the following summer, it would be a distinct 
help in keeping the trees in balance, and in eliminating 
the excessive cutting which might otherwise be necessary 
the following spring. 

168. Trees eight to twelve years old, which should be 
in fruiting but have never borne, have almost always 
been over-stimulated — over-pruned, over-tilled, over-irri- 



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FIG. 172 

VIGOROUS GROWTHS FOLLOW THINNING 

Bartlett pear spurs were thinned out of old tree. 

Vigorous shoots resulted. At t are terminal fruit 

buds; at a axillary fruit buds on last season's (one 

year) shoots. 



PRUNING YOUNG TREES 



209 



gated, or a combination of stimuli — which results in forc- 
ing rank wood growth, producing heavy, large leaves, 
but little or no fruit. The remedy is to remove the 
stimulus, whatever it may be, and prune several times a 
year. 

Summer pruning for such trees will come probably 
more about the time very young trees are pruned ; that 
is, along in June. 
At each time when 
the terminal 
growth threatens 
to become exces- 
sively long, it 
should be cut back 
and the trees 
thinned out some- 
what. The follow- 
ing spring a little 
more thinning and 
pruning-out may 
be done to advan- 
tage. The applica- 
tion of summer 
pruning to these 
trees should be 
largely a distribu- 
tion of the pruning 
over two periods, 
thus avoiding an 
excessive pruning. 
Only in very rare 
cases can one ex- 
pect direct results 
from such pruning. Results will come indirectly in bring- 
ing the trees back to their normal balance. It often be- 
comes necessary to reduce the amount of tillage or irrigation 
given such trees, and in cases where the growth is ab- 




FIG. 173 
FRUIT SPURS DUE TO GOOD PRUNING 

Five-year Yellow Newtown apple tree rather 
heavily pruned each year until last, when no winter 
pruning was done. When compared with Fig. 171, 
a tree of the same age and variety, it shows how 
light, as opposed to heavy, pruning tends to throw 
a tree into bearing. Note the many fruit spurs on 
the two-year-old wood (enlarged in frontispiece). 
During the preceding season a large part of the 
energies of the tree was devoted to fruit spur 
formation. 



210 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



normally excessive it is sometimes fomid advisable even 
to check this by growling crops, such as hay or grain, be- 
tween the trees. 

169. Applications of pruning principles to young trees. 
At the time the tree is given its first pruning we should 
definitely settle the question of head (158). Most growers 

after they have headed the 
tree, pay no more attention to 
it until the following spring, 
when they are ready for the 
second pruning. In many cases 
this is a mistake. It will be 
found very advisable in May 
and June to go through the or- 
chard and look over the newly 
set trees carefully. At this 
time, certain very small shoots 
or buds should be rubbed off. 
If one branch is growing at the 
expense of all the others, it may 
be suppressed. The orchardist 
may do very much the first 
year to start the tree in the 
proper way, and to put it in 
better condition for the second 
year's growth. 

Only in rare cases will it be 
advisable to give the trees a 
systematic pruning the first 
year, because it will be only 
occasionally that the trees will make a sufficiently 
rank growth to warrant such a pruning. Many young 
trees do not make much top the first year; they are build- 
ing roots and getting firmly established. In cases, how- 
ever, where they have made a strong growth, it is sug- 
gested that the trees be summer-pruned as soon as they 
have made sufficient growth, so that new laterals may be 



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FIG. 174— TYPICAL FIVE-YEAR 
WINTER NELIS PEAR 



PRUNING YOUNG TREES 



211 



formed to advantage. Those shoots that are making such 
growth should be pinched back, provided this pruning 
can be done not later than the middle of July and pref- 
erably in June. Such laterals should be cut back to 
stubs from 8 to 1') inches long, depending, of course, up- 
on the vigor of the 
branch. One may make 
the mistake, however, 
of pinching them back 
so hard as to force the 
new laterals too near 
the main crotch, and 
thus make a very close, 
heavy crotch which 
will pile up in years to 
come. 

170. The second 
spring, unless the start 
was made the first year, 
one should choose defi- 
nitely the shape of the 
tree to be grown ; either 
the open, the leader, or 
the modified leader 
tree. If the tree was 
summer-pruned the 
previous season, that 
question should have 
been settled at the time 
of pruning. If the 
leader or the modified 
leader is the type, choose one branch to maintain the lead 
and prune this in such a way that it may maintain such 
a lead. If the open tree has been decided upon, choose 
the four or five branches, spaced as far apart as possible, 
and cut these back according to their strength, cutting 
the strongest branches the most and the weakest ones 




FIG. 175— FRUIT SPURS FORM ON LAST 
YEAR'S SHOOTS 
On this Italian Prune branch the main stem 
from a to 6 is three years old. Two years ago 
three shoots, b to c and two fruit spurs, b,b, 
were formed. Last year three shoots, c, d, 
developed from the terminal buds of the 
preceding year's growth and many fruit spurs 
sprang from the lateral buds. The lateral 
buds on these fruit spurs are fruit buds; the 
terminal ones leaf buds. 



212 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



the least. One will then have five main branches with a 
few laterals on each. It is customary to remove all these 
laterals. [But "custom" should be based on principle. 
Each case should, therefore, be decided by the pruner's 
best judgment. Cut or leave the laterals as judgment 
may dictate.] By the middle of June, the young tree 
should have made sufficient growth to allow for summer 
pruning. Each branch should be pinched back so as to 
leave it from 8 to 15 inches long, cutting according to 
vigor, always suppressing the stronger. 

171. In the third spring each of the original five main 
frame limbs will have from one to a dozen lateral or addi- 
tional branches. It is 
customary to remove 
all but one from each 
main branch, so that 
when the tree is pruned 
there will be ten 
branches on the tree 
where there were five 
before. A great deal of 
care should be used in 
selecting these new 
branches. The two 
branches on each frame 
limb should be spaced 
as far apart as possible. 
Of course avoid the 
choosing of laterals 
which will tend to grow 
in toward the center of 
the tree. Then avoid 
cutting these two lat- 
erals equally. Choose 
FIG. 176— FIVE-YEAR NEWTOWN PRUNED q^^q branch which will 

The winter pruning has been light because loi/^of nnA An 

the tree is reaching the critical stage when it grOW aS 3. leaQCr aUQ QO 

should begin to bear. Heavy pruning might ^ ^ ^^- ^^^y. g^j^g 

keep it trom bearing. J- 




PRUNING YOUNG TREES 



:i3 



as heavily as the second 
branch, which will 
make a side branch. 

By the second 
[third?] summer, these 
trees should be so well 
established that by 
June they may be given 
a second pruning. Each 
branch left on the tree 
will have grown 15 to 
18, or in some cases, as 
much as 30 inches long. 
Instead of letting them 
go the entire summer, 
Avhenever they have 
made sufficient growth, 
they may be cut back 
in order to force out a 
new set of laterals. The 
following spring in all 
probability about the 
only pruning that will 
have to be done will 
and there 




FIG. 177— FIVE-YEAR APPLE PRUNED 

PREVIOUS SUMMER 
Note the length of the shoots which re 
suited from summer pruning. 



be a little thinning out here 
In case the laterals which come out as a 
result of the pruning in June have made a very vigorous 
growth, and are getting too rangy, they may be cut back 
somewhat, although it will be in only extreme cases that 
much cutting will have to be done on these branches. 
Moderate clipping back is often advisable to prevent the 
terminal bud from continuing growth, and producing long, 
willowy growth. So this pruning may be continued for 
two or three years, never leaving, as a rule, more than 
about two branches where one was before. 

172. The fourth year. — At the beginning of the fourth 
year, a modification of the pruning may be made. It is 
coming time now to let down on the heavy pruning. If 



214 



PRINCIPLES AND PRx\CTICE OF PRUNING 



one practices as severe pruning as during the previous 
years, the tendency will be to force the tree into wood. 
Many growers thin out the laterals excessively, force an 
enormous terminal growth, and cut back this terminal 
growth vigorously, thus forcing out new laterals. We 

believe that too many 
growers make a mis- 
take by pruning too 
vigorously at this time. 
It would be an advan- 
tage to leave more lat- 
eral wood than most 
growers leave. Just 
how much is advisable 
to leave in all cases is 
very hard to say, be- 
cause the relation of 
shade to the formation 
of fruit spurs or fruit 
buds has not been 
worked out very defi- 
nitely (66 to 69). Until 
that can be done, it 
won't be possible to 
give very explicit di- 
rections, but we would 
rather let the tree grow a little brushy, because after it 
comes into bearing this excess wood may very easily be 
thinned out. 

The summer pruning now changes from the former 
early summer pruning in early June to the time the termi- 
nal buds form (66). The rule, then, with trees from four 
to seven years old is simply to cut back the terminals 
sufficiently so they will not run away with the tree, and 
thin out so that the tree will not become too dense. If 
this is followed, the tendency will be for young trees to 
come to bearing earlier than they otherwise would. 




FIG. 178 
WELL-FORMED APPLE TREE HEAD 
Note how well the frame limbs are dis- 
tributed and how strong the crotches are. 
Compare with Fig. 73. 



PRUNING YOUNG TREES 



215 



The amount of pruning- that trees, which have just 
come into bearing will stand, will, of course, vary greatly 
with their vigor. The soil, the climate, and the variety 
should all be taken into consideration. There is a great 
difference in the bearing habits of trees. The amount of 
pruning which regular bearers, like Jonathan, Wagener, 
\\'inesap, Grimes, etc., 
will stand will vary 
considerably as com- 
pared with the pruning 
that Yellow Newtown, 
Northern Spy, Bald- 
win, Tompkins King or 
varieties of their habit 
of growth will stand. 
As a general rule, the 
growers of Yellow 
Newtown on the heav- 
ier soils of Oregon are 
making a mistake with 
their young trees. In 
almost all cases they 
are over-pruning, cut- 
ting their trees so hard 
that whatever tendency 
the trees may have to 
bear is directed into 
other channels. 

The directions given 
so far apply chiefly to 
apple pruning. Never- 
theless, the recommendations apply equally well to all 
deciduous fruits and nuts, such as prunes, pears, cherries 
and walnuts. A few special recommendations, however, 
may be given for fruits other than apples. 

173. Recommendations for pears. — Growers generally 
feel that it is harder to fight the blight with the leader 




FIG. 179— SPLENDID DISTRIBUTION OF 
FRAME BRANCHES ON FOUR-YEAR 
APPLE TREE 





FIG. 180— FAR TOO MANY FRUIT SPURS 

This old Bartlett pear tree has become too full of many-branched fruit spurs. 
Most of these are weak. Hence they produce flowers and fruit very irregularly 
— only once in five or ten years. 



PRUNING YOUNG TREES 



217 



than with the open type of tree. So it is generally recom- 
mended that either the open type or the modified leader 
be chosen. They must remember, however, that many 
of the open trees are very easily damaged by blight and 
are often ruined because the crotches are poorly formed 
(Fig. 164). An efifort should be made to have the branches 
spaced as far apart as possible, so if a branch is lost from 
blight, the remainder of 
the tree may be easily 
saved. It should always 
be borne in mind that fire 
blight works in suc- 
culent growth, and that 
in handling pear trees 
one should avoid exces- 
sive wood growth. 

Pears begin their 
growth earlier in the 
spring and cease it ear- 
lier in the summer than 
do apples. This should 
be specially borne in 
mind with young trees, 
if summer pruning is to 
be practiced. Some varie- 
ties of pears, especially 
Bartlett, have a tendency 
to form fruit buds and 
to bear fruit on the ends of the terminals. They will do 
this often while the trees are still very young, but should 
be discouraged from bearing in this way. The tendency 
to bear on such terminals should be overcome by summer 
pruning. The crooked growth of Winter Nelis and Bosc 
is very troublesome to the beginner in pear growing. 
Growers should not, however, worry too much about the 
crooked growth, for as the trees become older, they will 
take care of themselves very largely and this crooked 




FIG. 181 

PLAN OF TREE AT PLANTING TIME 

Numbers indicate branches 



218 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



growth will cease to be troublesome. Prune the trees in 
practically the same way as those that grow straight. 

Pears may carry more lateral wood than apples. They 
spread relatively farther when they produce a heavy crop, 
so one should avoid thinning the young trees excessively. 
Keep all spurs, or fruits (196) from the main trunks and 
low down on the frame branches, as these are a source 
of infection from the blight. It is also wise, in pruning 
in any district where fire blight is troublesome, to see 
that the pruning tools are carefully sterilized (Fig. 183) 
before the cuts are made. 

174. Recommendations for cherries. — Formerly the 
cherry was headed at about 35 inches. Many growers 
head at 20 to 25. They are building very nice trees. 
There seems to be a prejudice against pruning a cherry 
tree. The first six years it may be pruned about the same 
as has been directed for apples. Summer pruning is 
recommended, as splendid results may thus be obtained. 
The cherry has a tendency to shoot up 
in the air very rapidly, making an 
enormous growth the first two years. 
The result is that the average grower 
has not the nerve in the winter to cut 
this back severely, so he leaves his trees 
too leggy (Fig. 184). One way to over- 
come this leggy, high type of growth 
is to cut back the terminals in the sum- 
mer. A very good type of tree to get 
would be the Mazzard body, making the 
trunk and main frame branches of the 
Mazzard, later budding these over. 
This will give strong crotches and there 
will be little gumming and loss from 
trees of this type. Should cherry trees 
need heavy cutting, do not hesitate to 
take large branches. However, take 
care to protect the wounds carefully 




FIG. 182 
PRUNED PEAR 
Typical five-year 
Winter Nelis pear tree. 
Note that the center is 
being suppressed. This 
tree gives indication of 
bearing a crop. If it 
should bear, it will 
stand heavier cutting 
back next season. 
Compare with Fig. 174. 



II 



PRUNING YOUNG TREES 



219 



as cherry wood is softer than that of most pomaceous 
fruits. 

175. Recommendations for prunes and plums. — The 
recommendations for apple trees apply very closely. The 
trees are generally headed higher than any of our other 
fruits, 30 to 35 inches. Some growers, however, are head- 
ing at 20 to 25. The tree never becomes extremely high- 
headed, and 
since most of 
the fruit, which 
is to be evap- 
orated, is al- 
lowed to drop 
on the ground 
before harvest- 
ing, the height 
of the head 
from the har- 
vesting point of 
view does not 
need any con- 
sideration. 
However, 
growers will 
probably get 
better results 
by constantly 
suppressingter- 
minal growth 
and thinning 
out the centers 
where these be- 
come too dense, so as to allow the development of 
strong wood. Do not overdo this, however, by removing 
all small laterals, spurs and secondary branches. Also, 
do not remove too much wood from the outside of the 
tree, and yet keep the tree fairly open. Many growers 




FIG. 183— FIRE-BLIGHT HANDLING KIT 
Corrosive sublimate in bottle. One tablet to a pint of 
water makes a 1 to 1000 part solution. The can con- 
taining the sponge is fastened to the belt. The largest 
bottle is similarly fastened. It is uncorked and tilted 
to wet the sponge in the can when necessary. The pole 
pruner has a sponge to swab cuts as made. A wooden 
bucket with a large sponge to clean out cankers completes 
the outfit. 



220 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



of young trees practice cutting ofif considerable wood on 
the outside of the tree and leave the centers a little dense. 
The reverse is the better policy. Try to keep the trees 
low headed, broad and low spreading, so as to build a 
large framework for fruiting wood in succeeding years. 
176. Recommendations for English walnuts. — Trees 
should be headed at about 35 inches, and at the time they 
are headed a heavy stake 7 or 8 feet long should be driven 
in the ground close to the body of the tree. The first 
summer choose four or five laterals that will give a good 
framework and tie these to the stake. If this is not done 
they will tend to droop to the ground too much, but by 
careful tying one can keep them well in shape. The 
following spring cut back the trees exactly as though 
they were apples. In many walnut trees one branch may 
grow up 6 or 8 feet — 3 or 4 feet higher than any of the 
other branches. Cut this back hard so as to bring on 
the other branches. Generally the 
pruning should be done just before the 
starting of the sap flow. Formerly the 
trees were allowed to grow three or 
four years, all laterals were taken off 
and the trees grown to poles. We find 
that when they are handled as though 
they were apples, we get more spread- 
ing trees with larger fruiting areas — 
trees which will be much easier to 
handle from the orchard management 
point of view. 

177. Recommendations for peaches. 
The peach has a different fruiting habit 
from any other trees we have men- 
tioned (56). However, the aim in 
pruning such trees the first few years 
is much the same as that for other types 
of fruit ; namely, the building up of a 
strong framework for future years of 




FIG. 184 
POOR TYPE CHERRY 
All the main 
branches issue at one 
point. Note how "leggy" 
the tree is. Th's is 
due to insufficient head- 
ing back the first two 
years. Heading this 
tree back twice a year 
might have been help- 
ful. 



PRUNING YOUNG TREES 



221 




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FIG. 185 — THREE-YEAR LAM- 
BERT CHERRY BEFORE EARLY 
JULY PRUNING 



FIG. 186 — THREE- YEAR - OLD 

LAMBERT CHERRY TREE AFTER 

PRUNING IN EARLY JULY 



fruiting. The peach, when secured from the nursery, is 
generally too large and has a large number of branches. 
An ideal tree is a straight whip, but it is almost impossible 
to buy such trees. Under our soil and climatic conditions 
the trees tend to grow very vigorously in the nursery. A 
general heading to about 18 to 20 inches is recommended. 

If whips can be secured, they should be pruned as is 
customary with the other trees. If there are a few weak 
laterals, they should be removed, but if the trees have 
strong laterals, instead of removing all lateral growth, 
which is practiced by some growers, half a dozen well- 
spaced branches should be chosen and cut back to one 
or two buds. This will give a large leaf surface the first 
year, will remove the danger of having a tree stand with 
only one or two branches, and also will remove the dan- 
ger of the tree's dying. Under our climatic conditions a 
great many peach trees, when they are pruned back to 
whips, after they have once formed strong laterals, never 
start to grow. Some trees will force out new buds and 
shoots, but others will not. If, after the buds start on the 



222 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



short laterals, there are found to be too many, it will be 
a simple matter to thin out undesirable growth. 

It is customary to try to head peaches as low as pos- 
sible ; to have the first branch to come out very close to 
the ground and to get the crotches as well spaced as is 
consistent with the amount of area one can work with. 




FIG. 187— OLD PRUNE TREE AFTER REMOVAL OF DEAD WOOD AND SEVERE 
THINNING OF THE LIVING SPURS 



PRUNING YOUNG TREES 



223 



At the end of the first year choose four or five of the 
best spaced branches and cut them back on an average 
of 8 to 12 inches. Not much summer pruning is practiced 
for peaches. By the end of the second year the tree 
should be cut back again so it will be S^-^ to 4J/^ feet high. 
Constantly train the tree to 
spread by cutting to outside 
buds, constantly forcing the 
tree to make a broad, spread- 
ing top, rather than to allow it 
to shoot up in the air. It takes 
more nerve than the average 
grower has to cut the tree as 
hard as indicated, but it is nec- 
essary if one is to keep it near 
the ground and have profitable 
fruiting. 

It will be necessary to cut 
ofif about two-thirds of the last 
year's wood from the inside of 
the tree. Practice this con- 
stantly with the peach. The 
aim should be to keep the 
center open so as to give light 
and develop strong wood. Cut 
out all weak wood and limit the 
amount of annual wood so what 
is left may grow strong. It 
will be only on the strong wood that large peaches will 
grow. Growers, however, may go to extremes in grow- 
ing vigorous wood. If the wood becomes too vigorous 
the first two crops will be borne on the ends of the shoots 
and it will be almost impossible to prune the trees and 
still have any fruit. Medium-sized wood is more de- 
sirable. If the wood is getting too vigorous be sparing 
in the pruning and it will tend to check the trees. A little 
summer pruning may be used to advantage where the 




FIG. 188 

FIVE-BRANCHED TREE AT END 

OF FIRST SEASON 



224 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



wood tends to become excessive. Not much fruit should 

be looked for until about the fourth year. 

178. Best height for peach tree head.*— There is considerable 

variation in the recommendations and suggestions of various au- 
thorities as to the proper 
method or degree of prun- 
ing peach trees at the time 
of planting. A common 
recommendation is to cut 
the trees back to a height of 
from 18 to 24 inches regard- 
less of grade. Some recom- 
mend cutting back the 
trunks to 6 inches and 
others even 30 inches. These 
suggestions are apparently- 
based on some ideal with 
respect to the height at 
which the individual prefers 
to have the branches form. 
In order to secure a rela- 
tively low-headed tree, one 
must cut back the trunk of 
the nursery tree rather 
severely at planting time to 
make it branch low. This 
has led some to believe that 
the more severely the tree 
is cut back the lower the 
head will be ; and that hence 
spraying and picking the 
fruit may be performed 
more easily. But the mere 
cutting back of the trunk 
to a low point does not nec- 
essarily mean that the fruit 
may be picked more easily 
or the tree sprayed more 
economically than from one 
whose head is formed sev- 
eral inches higher (Fig. 
72). For example, some 
fruit growers cut the trees 
back to a six-inch stub at 
the time of planting and 
then proceed to remove all 
side branches that form on 




FIG. 189 
NEGLECT FOLLOWING DEHORNING 
Four years ago this old Italian Prune tree 
was "dehorned" for renovation. Little or no 
pruning has been done since. Last year the 
tree bore a small crop of prunes on spurs 
that had developed on the water sprouts stimu- 
lated by the dehorning. There is promise of 
a medium crop this year; but the newly 
formed spurs in the lower part of the tree are 
already declining because of too much shade. 
To keep them from getting long and willowy, 
and finally dying, considerable thinning out is 
necessary. Heading back which would stimu- 
late the formation of more water sprouts 
would increase the trouble. Compare with 
Figs. 30, 31, 150, 159, 161, 165, 166 and the 
explanations accompanying them. 



* Paragraphs 178 to 186 condensed from M. A. Blake's Bulletin (293) of th^ 
New Jersey Experiment Station. 



PRUNING YOUNG TREES 



225 




FIG. 190— PLAN OF TREE TOP AFTER ONE 
SEASON'S GROWTH IN ORCHARD 
Numbers indicate primary and secondary 
branches and the little cross lines the posi- 
tions to make pruning cuts. 



the selected s c a ff o 1 d 
branches to a height of sev- 
eral feet ! 

179. Outline of the ex- 
periments. — The object of 
this article is to report the 
results of pruning studies 
with peach trees at various 
heights at the time of plant- 
ing, studies which attempt 
to note the effect of such 
pruning upon the total 
growth of the trees and up- 
on the form, vigor and de- 
velopment of the branches. 
In any study of this sort 
two general types of results 
are to be looked for : those 
that concern the welfare of 
the plant from a botanical 
and plant growth stand- 
point, and those which are 
merely commercial. Some 
differences in results may be 
expected, depending upon 

whether the trees are freshly dug from the nursery at time of plant- 
ing, or whether they have become severely dried out for some rea- 
son before planting. The variety may also he 

a factor, as would certainly the grade or size 

of the trees. 

Although "June buds" are used to some ex- 
tent in New Jersey for planting, most growers 

purchase one-year-old trees, hence these 

studies are confined to trees of that age. Such 

trees are commonly graded by height and 

caliper. Trees of the same height may vary 

considerably in stockiness or caliper as grown 

in different nurseries, so the caliper method is 

the better basis for a study of differences in 

vigor. As representing common sizes offered 

for sale the following sizes of trees were used 

in the experiment : caliper %, ^, ^/s, V2 and 

^-inch. The pruning treatments studied were 

as follows: 1, not pruned; 2, back to 36-inch 

trunks ; to .30-inch ; to 24-inch ; to 18-inch ; to 

12-inch ; to 6-inch. 
One of the principal objects of cutting back 

the tops of trees at the time of planting is to 

reduce the twig surface to balance the loss 




FIG. 191 
ENGLISH WALNUT 
This three-year tree 
is properly staked. In 
pruning, the two lowest 
laterals should be cut 
and last year's growth 
cut back. The tree was 
headed at 30 inches. 
It would be better if 
5 or 6 inches higher. 



226 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



due to digging, and therefore to decrease the danger of loss of trees 
and to secure a better growth. 

The experiment was started in the spring with two lots of El- 
berta trees. One lot consisted of trees which had been dug the 
previous fall and kept in a large nursery storehouse. Such trees 
are nearly always drier than freshly dug trees. It was planned to 
compare these with a lot of freshly dug trees, but the latter lot be- 
came badly dried out because of improper handling by the nursery- 
man before they were delivered, the bark upon many of the trees 
being badly shriveled at the time of delivery. This, however, fur- 
nished an equally good comparison, although from another stand- 
point. 

Thirty-five trees of each grade were selected making five trees to 
each pruning treatment. The roots were left in the form in which 




FIG. 192— SPLENDID TYPE OF LOW-HEADED, SPREADING ENGLISH WALNUT 

they came from the nursery except that any broken tips were cut 
off cleanly. They were all planted the same day in good soil and 
were given good culture throughout the season. 

At the close of the growing season and after the foliage had 
fallen, notes were taken as to the number of living trees, and 
measurements were made of the linear twig growth upon each 
tree. There were 175 of the stored trees at the time of planting, 
35 each of five grades. All lived except one in the ^/^-inch grade 
which had been pruned to 30 inches. One tree of the Jg-inch grade 
was slightly injured in cultivation and was not averaged with the 
others of the 12-inch treatment. This experiment shows practically 




PRUNING YOUNG TREES 



227 




FIG. 193— PORTABLE BRUSH INCINERATOR 
Built of sheet iron on runners. Holes in the bottom 
admit air and allow ashes to fall out. 



no loss of trees through lack of cutting back of the top at the time 
of planting, as all the unpruned trees were alive at the end of the 
growing season. 

180. Effect of pruning upon total twig growth. — On the basis of 
a comparison of grades regardless of any pruning treatment the 
?^-inch trees made 

the best average 
total growth, 
closely followed by 
the ^-inch trees. 
The smallest aver- 
age total growth 
was made by the 
^-inch trees. A 
comparison of the 
various pruning 
treatments regard- 
less of grade 
shows that the best 
average total 
growth was made 
by the trees pruned 
to 36 inches and 
the next best by 
those cut back to 

12 inches. The lowest average growth was made by the trees cut 
to 18 inclies. The unpruned trees made a very creditable and uni- 
form growth in comparison with the other treatments based on total 
growth regardless of form. 

181. Effect of pruning growth of dried-out trees. — When the dried- 
out trees were received the bark was much shriveled and the roots 
in a dried condition, but they were soaked in water for several hours, 
heeled into moist soil for a few days and then pruned and planted. 
The same number of trees were used as in the experiment previously 
noted, except that it was not possible to secure trees of a J/^-inch 
grade. 

A record of the number of living trees at the close of the sea- 
son's growth clearly indicates, as would be expected, that the small 
trees suffered the most from the drying out in transit. The roots 
of ^-inch trees are all small and easily dried out. The bark of 
twigs and trunk of the smaller trees probably also permits more 
rapid evaporation of moisture than does that of the larger trees. 

One would expect to find the greatest loss among the unpruned 
trees and the least among the fi-inch trees. This is practically true, 
but it is worthy of note that the 12-inch treatment and the 36-inch 
treatment have as high a percentage of living trees as the 6-inch, 
and that the 18 and 24-inch treatments suffered nearly as much loss 
as the unpruned trees. This is significant in connection with the 
comparisons on the basis of total growth in the various treatments. 



228 



PKINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



The loss of so many trees in the 5^-inch grade seriously affects the 
number to be averaged as to total growth. The dried-out trees made 
hardly more than a third of the growth that the stored trees did. 

The best average total growth among the dried-out trees was 
made by the -^-inch grade. A comparison on the basis of pruning 
treatment regardles^s of grade shows the following : The unpruned 
trees made the poorest average growth; the 36-inch treatment re- 
sulted in the next poorest growth ; the 30-inch treatment resulted 
in the best growth ; the 24-inch treatment resulted in the next best 
growth. It was to be expected that the unpruned trees of this lot 
would make the poorest growth, and one might expect that the more 
severe the pruning the better the growth. This is true to a certain 
degree, but it does not follow in regular proportion to the severity 
of the pruning. Another factor appears to enter into the case. 

182. Studies with freshly dug nursery trees.— The following spring 
trees of the Belle of Georgia variety were secured freshly dug from 

a local nursery and im- 
mediately planted. The same 
grades and pruning treat- 
ments were used as in the 
former tests. Two trees out 
of 140 in the 36-inch treat- 
ment died. One was of ^- 
inch caliper and the other 
^4-inch caliper. The results 
of this test in terms of twig 
growth show that the larger 
the grade the poorer the 
growth of unpruned, freshly 
dug trees. The smaller the 
grade the better is the 
growth of 6-inch pruned 
trees. Or expressed in 
other words, the larger the 
trees the more they are de- 
pressed in growth by a 6- 
inch stub pruning treatment. 
183. Distribution and size 
of branches. — A free, vigor- 
ous growth is desired the 
first season the trees are 
set, but mere volume of 
growth is not the only con- 
sideration in a commercial 
fruit planting. The form 
and character of growth as 
related to successful support of a heavy crop of fruit later and to 
the economical care and management of the trees are of much con- 
sequence. In order to determine and show the effect of pruning 




FIG. 194 
WELL PRUNED AND OPEN HEADED 
Such a tree facilitates spraying, thinning 
and harvesting and produces large crops of 
better fruit than does a neglected tree. Com- 
pare with Fig. 314. 



1 



PRUNING YOUNG TREES 



229 



upon branch formation upon the trunk, the number of branches to 
each 6 inches of trunk was noted in all grades and treatments of the 
experiment with Belle of Georgia trees. The numbers of branches 
at various heights upon the unpruned trees are of direct interest 
because they should indicate fairly accurately the distribution of buds 
and branches at the time the trees were set. As dead branches were 
not recorded, however, the actual distribution of branches at time of 
planting may not be accurately indicated by these figures. 





FIG. 195— GOOD YEARLING PEACH 
This 1-inch caliper tree is exceptional as 
to size and branch development. The num- 
bers indicate the height in inches from the 
bud at A. 



FIG. 196 
PEACH TRUNK, 1 
Close view of lower part 
of one-year trunk. Note 
buds and branches. 



The observations upon the unpruned trees as a group show that 
the number of branches increases for each succeeding 6 inches of 
trunk from the ground to a height of 24 inches. From this height 
to 36-inch the number remains quite uniform and then decreases 
for each succeeding 6 inches of height. The unpruned trees of the 
^ grade vary to a slight degree from this rule. The decrease in 



230 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



the number of branches to each 6 inches of height of trunk begins 

at the 34-inch height instead of at the 36-inch height in the case of 

the larger trees. 

In a further study, the results show that the largest number of 

branches to develop upon the first or lowest 6 inches of trunk occur 
in the 6-inch treatment. The largest num- 
ber of branches upon the second 6 inches 
of trunk, or from 6 to 12 inches above the 
point of budding, occurs in the 12-inch 
treatment. The largest number of 
branches upon the third 6 inches of trunk 
is also found to occur in the 8-inch treat- 
ment. Thus far, then, branches have de- 
veloped more freely upon the 6 inches of 
trunk immediately below the point where 
the tree was cut back. The trees in these 
treatments, then, follow the plant law that 
growth is strongest at the tips of the 
branches (91). 

Beginning with the 24-inch treatment, 
however, the largest number of branches 
is not found upon the 6 inches of trunk 
immediately below the point where the 
tree was cut back. Before this exception 
is discussed further, it may be well to 
note what the results were in the case 
of the other lots of trees. At that time 
the location of the branches upon the un- 
pruned trees was not considered to be of 
any practical importance. 

One lot of trees behaved somewhat 
differently from that just referred to. 
There appears to be a great tendency for 
trees at all dried out to develop the 
greater number of branches on the first 
6 inches of trunk near the ground regard- 
less of the pruning treatment. This is to 
be expected perhaps since that portion of 
the tree would dry out more slowly than 
any other. The trees pruned to 12 and 13 
inch trunks did not develop the greatest 
number of branches along the 6 inches of 
trunk immediately below the point of 
cutting back, as was the case with the freshly dug trees. 

Several other facts may also be noted. The number of branches 
developing on the first 6 inches of trunk tends to increase with the 
severity of the pruning. The 18-inch treatment falls below its proper 
place in the scale, but the figures undoubtedly correctly indicate the 




FIG. 197 
PEACH TRUNK, 2 
This is a close view of the 
upper section of a trunk one 
year old. Letters show 6- 
inch lengths. Note bud and 
branch formation. 



I! 



PRUNING YOUNG TREES 



231 



condition of this lot of 
trees. 

The number of branches 
developing on the second 
6 inciies of trunk is also 
limited in the IS-inch treat- 
ment. The unpruned trees 
and the Sfi-inch treatment 
of the freshly dug Belle of 
Georgia trees developed the 
largest number of branches 
on the 18 to 24-inch section 
of the trunk. The 36-inch 
treatment of the stored 
Elberta trees, however, de- 
veloped but few branches 
on the 18 to 24-inch sec- 
tion of trunk, and de- 
veloped by far the largest 
number on the first 6 
inches. 

It is evident that the 
branch formation upon the 
pruned trees is largely con- 
trolled by the distribution 
of the buds upon the trunks 
of the nursery trees. Upon 
the larger grades of stored 
Elberta trees there were 

very few 




FIG. 198 

ONE-YEAR PEACH FROM NURSERY 

Numbers are inches from the bud union at A 




199~GOOD 
PROTECTOR 



vigorous buds on the trunks from 6 to 18 
inches above the point of budding, with the 
result that very few branches could develop. 
Stored trees are commonly somewhat dried 
out and any poorly developed or adventitious 
buds are not likely to start as freely as in the 
case of freshly dug trees. The light grade of 
stored trees, the ^-inch, had more buds upon 
the 6 to 18-inch sections of trunk. 

It is plain from the above facts why the 
stored trees failed to give the same results as 
the freshly dug trees in the matter of free 
development of branches upon the 6 inches of 
trunk immediately below the point of cutting 
back in the 12 and 18-inch treatments. It 
should be noted further, however, that the 
section of trunk 12 to 18 inches above the 
point of budding is a weak spot from the 



232 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



standpoint of branch growth, even in the case of the freshly dug 
trees, as is indicated by the total growth of all trees pruned to a 
height of 18 inches. Such evidence indicates that some of our 
arbitrary and "rule of thumb" methods of pruning peach trees at 
time of planting may need revising. 

A question which also arises is whether the trees of the 12 and 
the 18-inch treatments which died back to 6 inches because branches 

failed to start near the tips 
made as much growth as 
trees originally pruned to 6 
inches. The records of total 
linear twig growth do not in- 
dicate that the dying trunk 
stubs had a depressing effect 
upon growth. In fact, the 
growth upon these trees is 
fully equal to that of the 6- 
inch stubs. These dying 
stubs, however, cause the 
branches to spread out at the 
base, and it would be well to 
remove such stubs as soon as 
it is certain that they will not 
develop any branches. 

184. Length of the branches. 
The total twig growth of the 
tree is important as indicat- 
ing general vigor. The points 
at which the trees develop 
branches concern the forma- 
tion of the head of the tree. 
The number and length of 
the branches may also be 
factors in the development of 
the form of the tree. 

The largest total number 
of branches occurred in the 
lengths from 7 to 12 inches. 
The largest average total 
number of branches of all 
lengths occurred in the 36- 
inch treatment, and the next 
largest average number in the 
12-inch treatment. This is 
the same ranking as occurred on the basis of total growth. The 
18-inch treatment resulted in the smallest average total number of 
branches and it also produced the lowest average total growth. The 
number of branches regardless of their length, therefore, appears 
to be correlated with amount of growth. We may conclude, then, 




FIG. 200 — ONE-YEAR PEACH FROM 

NURSERY— %-INCH CALIPER 
Figures indicate inches above the bud at A 



PRUNING YOUNG TREES 233 

that the more severe the pruning the greater the tendency toward 
the production of long branches. 

The total number of branches from 24 to 50 inches in length serves 
as a good basis for comparing treatments. The results were as 
follows: Not pruned, 27 branches; 36-inch, 71; 30-inch, 69; 24- 
inch, 68 ; 18-inch, 65 ; 12-inch, 69 ; 6-inch, 54. This shows an average 
of at least three branches to the tree from 24 to 50 inches in length 
for all treatments except the "not pruned" and the "6-inch" trees. 
This indicates that about the same number of vigorous branches 
developed under all but the most extreme treatments, yet the actual 
position of the branches may vary greatly. If each grade is ex- 
amined separately, differences are noted. 

Increased size and vigor of the trees and their root systems may 
be expected to offset a slight advantage in the number of buds 
beyond certain limits. The proportion of top to root also bears on 
the case. Yet, with due consideration to the importance of these 
factors, there is abundant evidence to show that bud and branch 
development at different points upon the trunks of one-year-old 
peach trees as received from the nursery has an important bearing 
upon the growth of these trees as they are pruned and planted. 

If a tree is cut back above a point where well-developed buds are 
numerous, good branch development may be expected. On the 
other hand, if a tree is cut back just above a point where there are 
but few buds, the tree may fail to start well, or perhaps not start 
at all, leaving a dead stub. Some variation is to be looked for 
between different lots of nursery trees even of the same variety, 
and especially where insects or diseases have affected the develop- 
ment of the trees ; yet the data demonstrate that many facts are re- 
markably constant. 

185. Commercial results.— A treatment of a plant that results in 
the most vigorous growth is not necessarily the most profitable or 
desirable treatment from a commercial standpoint. It is possible 
for a tree to make a large amount of growth, bui it may be in such 
a form as to be poorly adapted to the production and support of a 
crop of fruit. In general, however, any treatment which depresses 
growth interferes with the tree's commercial possibilities. 

The tendency for trees of ^-inch grade, cut back to 6 inches 
when set, is to develop one or two large leading branches from near 
the point of budding and sometimes below. Where several branches 
develop close to the surface of the ground the control of borers is 
made difficult. Trees of the same grade cut to 12 inches are quite 
similar to the 6-inch trees. Trees of the f^-inch grade cut to 30 
inches are well-formed trees which permit of a short trunk and a 
good distribution of the main branches. 

The 18 and 24-inch treatments of 7^-inch stored Elberta trees 
failed to produce branches much above 6 inches from the ground 
and the "stub" finally died. Trees of large caliper commonly have 
few or no well-formed buds upon this portion of the trunk and fail 



234 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 

to start well, especially if they have become somewhat dried out be- 
fore being set. The >4-inch grade cut to 24 inches easily forms 
trees with short trunks and well-placed branches. The growth upon 
unpruned trees is not desirable commercially even if the trees 
should make a fair to good growth. 

From the results of these studies it is evident that should a fruit 
grower prefer to cut his trees back to 6-inch stubs at planting time, 
he should purchase trees of a ^-inch caliper. Srnall trees suffer 
most if they are allowed to become dry at any time previous to 
planting. Trees cut to a height of 36 inches when set make a better 
average top growth than trees cut more severely, if the question is 
considered broadly and regardless of grade. 

186. Summary. — One-year-old peach trees of a 5^ or 54-inch 
grade made the largest average total growth. The larger the trees 
the poorer the growth when unpruned at planting time. The smaller 
the trees, the greater the damage if the trees are allowed to become 
dry before planting. 

The largest average total growth regardless of grade was made 
by trees cut to a 36-inch trunk when set, except in the case of dried- 
out trees. Trees cut to 12-inch trunks when set made the next 
largest average total growth. The smallest average total growth 
occurred when trees were cut to 18-inch trunks when set. Trees of 
f^-inch grade made the largest amount of growth when cut back 
to 6-inch trunks when set. Trees as large as H inch or larger were 
depressed in growth when cut back to 6-inch trunks. 

Trees in general failed to develop branches well upon the 12 to 
24-inch section of the trunk. Very few well-developed buds occur 
upon this section of the tree under average conditions. The largest 
total number of branches occurs in the lengths from 7 to 12 inches. 
The largest average total number of branches of all lengths oc- 
curred in the 36-inch treatment, with the 12-inch treatment second. 
The number of branches of all lengths is, therefore, apparently 
correlated with the amount of growth. The unpruned trees de- 
veloped the smallest number of branches more than 24 inches long. 
The 36-inch trees developed the largest number of branches that 
were more than 24 inches long. The 6-inch treatment resulted in 
the formation of the largest number of branches, 40 to 50 inches 
long. The 12-inch treatment gave the largest number of branches, 
37 to 40 inches long. The 18-inch treatment gave the largest number 
of branches, 25 to 30 inches long. The 24-inch treatment gave the 
largest number of branches, 25 to 30 inches long. 

We may then conclude that the more severe the pruning the 
greater the tendency to produce long branches (83). It should be 
noted further, however, that so-called main branches are reduced 
in number when the trees are cut to 6 inches. One-year peach trees 
from the nursery start into growth best when planted in the or- 
chard if there are well-formed buds just below the point where the 
tree is cut back. The number of such buds varies at different points 
along the trunk of a nursery tree. Buds are found to be most 



PRUNING YOUNG TREKS 235 

numerous at the 6 to 12-inch space, followed in order by the 12 to 
18 and the 24 to oO-inch spaces. 

Peach trees at the time of planting should be pruned somewliat 
according to grade and the character of the stock, and not accord- 
ing to some definite height regardless of all other factors. 

187. Citrus trees. — Few fruits demand as little pruning 
as do the citrus trees — oranges, lemons, grapefruits, etc. 
— after once having been "educated" by training through 
their youthful days. Much of the pruning is done when 
the trees are set and during the first season or two. The 
lemon (190), however, is more pruned than any other 
member of the citrus group, its handling by many grow- 
ers thus approaching that of the peach. High heads are 
rapidly giving place in popularity to low ones, so low 
that often the branches rest on the ground. So satis- 
factory have low heads proved that many high-headed 
trees are being lowered by the encouragement and de- 
velopment of water sprouts on the lower parts of the 
trunks and the gradual cutting of branches high in the 
upper parts of the tops. In due time the suckers properly 
handled will bear fruit. 

In Florida "die-back" of the tops commonly follows a 
freeze or severe pruning. The roots are usually unhurt. 
Root pruning therefore aids in re-establishing a balance 
between top and root. A sharp spade thrust deep in the 
soil in a circle at nearly the limit of the branch spread will 
usually produce good results. The cause of the malady 
should, however, be discovered and the proper remedy 
applied. 

Frozen trees may be left alone, cut back somewhat or 
actually at the ground surface. The first is objectionable 
because the dead top must be removed some time ; why 
not at once? If left, a large part of the new growth must 
be injured in taking it out. In cases of slight injury the 
pruning may be postponed until the dead twigs become 
dry enough to break out. Cutting is, however, better 
than breaking. In cases of severe injury the whole of 
the injured part should go at once, preferably at the 



236 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 

ground. Sprouts or grafts may be used to form a new 
top. The sprouts may be budded when large enough. 
When the trunk seems unhurt it may be left to develop 
a new top, only the injured parts being removed. Most 
pruners leave too much of the old wood. In such cases 
the heart wood decays leaving only a thin cylinder of 
living wood. This becomes so weak that the loaded 
branches break unless propped or wired, processes which 
are both costly and unsatisfactory. 

188. Pruning and shaping orange trees. — According to J. W. 
Mills,* the tendency of young trees of Washington Navel and some 
other varieties to assume a drooping habit when making a vigorous 
g owth is because the soft shoots are unable to support the v^eight 
of the large, heavy leaves. Even trees that have been long in bear- 
ing will be benefited by pinching back every branch that takes too 
vigorous an upward growth. This pinching process is especially 
necessary with trees one to five years old. 

188a. Pruning bearing trees.— An upright tree has a decided ad- 
vantage over a drooping one when loaded with fruit. The crop 
is borne with less breakage of limbs, and not so much fruit is in- 
jured by the wind. After the trees are in full bearing, there seems 
to be no pruning that will promote the health of the trees or im- 
prove the crop other than cutting out limbs that project abruptly 
from the side, or those that make a sudden skyward growth, and 
the constant trimming out of dead or stunted wood found on the 
inside of the trees. 

If too close, the branches should be thinned out from the inside 
until the sunlight has had free access. This does not make any 
noticeable difference in the appearance of the tree, but makes it 
bear fruit on the inside. Such fruit is safe from sunburn and frost 
and packs as "fancy" grade. By early attention to pruning, the 
trees need never be allowed to grow too close in the center. 

189. Renewal of tops. — Some groves of old orange trees do not 
respond to even the best treatment the owners can give them. 
Under such circumstances, the most effective way to stimulate new 
life and vigor is sometimes to remove the entire top, leaving enough 
of each of the main limbs to distribute equally the suckers that will 
afterward make the new top of the tree. If the tops are only 
thinned out and but partially cut back, there will be a proportionate 
amount of feeble growth and a corresponding lack of productiveness. 

An old orange tree will rapidly produce a new top, even when cut 
back to a mere stump. It is soon in a condition to bear again at 
its full capacity. When the roots are healthy and the soil is prop- 
erly cultivated and fertilized, the orange tree appears able to produce 

* California Experiment Station Bulletin 138. 



PRUNING YOUNG TREES 237 

several generations of tops on one stock. But it will generally be 
found that the trouble with old, non-productive trees lies in the 
root-system, or in the management of soil, or in both. Thorough 
investigation of roots and soil should be made before any severe 
cutting or pruning of the top is resorted to. 

Except as noted in preceding paragraphs, all trees should be 
trained low for protection against frost, heat and wind, and to aid 
the gathering of fruit. Heavily laden branches are generally propped 
to prevent breaking down, as the loss from dropping and splitting 
is so great that the trees cannot be safely lightened by thinning the 
fruit when small. 

190. Pruning and training young lemon trees.* — The lemon tree 
must be watched closely and built up year by year, and deck by 
deck. The first and most important thing to consider is the building 
of the framework, which must carry a heavy load of fruit and 
which should be strong enough at bearing age to support this weight 
without breaking. Three kinds of materials are needed : building 
wood to construct the frame, fruit limbs and spurs to bear fruit. 
Building wood is that part of the growth that is inclined to grow 
straight up, and when a tree is young sometimes outward at an 
angle. Fruit limbs grow from 1 to 2]^ feet long and are dis- 
tinguished by their position on the frame of the tree and by the 
ends of the limbs, which show matured leaves and indications of 
buds forming at the tips. Sometimes a blossom occurs and often a 
little cluster of lemons. Fruit spurs are the growths that come on 
these fruit limbs, as also on the framework of the tree, if the tree 
is of a fruiting nature. 

Another growth about which there is a good deal of discussion 
is the sucker wood. A growth, or sprout, is a sucker only when it 
grows where it cannot be used on that part of a tree already de- 
veloped. The question has been raised, When is a sucker not a 
sucker? When something unexpectedly happens to a part of the 
tree so the sucker may be used, not for a fruit limb, but as a part 
of the tree. For instance, when a large limb has split off one side 
of a tree, just above it being a sucker 12 to 16 inches long. The 
split limb may be taken off entirely and the abrasion smoothed off 
and painted. The sucker may then be tied to the main part of the 
tree to prevent its breaking off, when it is large enough to cut back 
at the proper point to make it branch and spread it may be used to 
fill in the gap. In this case the sprout was a sucker when it could 
not be used, but when circumstances permitted its use it was no 
longer one. 

Building a lemon tree is accomplished by a systematic cutting out 
and back. This does not necessarily mean that the tree should not 
be expected or allowed to bear fruit during the building of the frame. 
More and better fruit will be produced at an earlier date than if the 

* Excerpt from an address by W. H. Fleet before the Special Citrus Convention, 
San Bernardino, Cal., February, 1916. 



238 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 

tree is allowed to follow its natural propensities, as the fruit limbs and 
fruit spurs will develop each year in the part of the frame built in 
previous years. It must be remembered while building the frame- 
work of the tree that fruit limbs and fruit spurs are being developed 
also, and care must be exercised during the building process not to 
trim out these fruit limbs or fruit spurs except where they are too 
thick. Never crop off the ends of the fruit limbs or fruit spurs. 

The question when to begin to build or train a lemon tree is an 
important one. When the bud sprout grown from the seedling 
stock has reached a height in the nursery so it may be cut off at a 
point where there is matured wood, 32 to 34 inches from the ground, 
is the time to begin training and developing the tree. Up to this 
time it has had to be held up by stakes and given every care, not 
having been trusted to its own propensities. Now, it is to be cut 
back. On the little stick or stem will be built a crown as a founda- 
tion of the tree. The height of cutting back to begin the framework 
is a matter of choice with the orchardist. I prefer a crown started 
within 32 to 34 inches of the ground. Four branches or crown 
limbs are allowed to grow out from the stem, no one being opposite 
another. It is not always possible to carry out this particular plan 
in the crowning of the tree, but in most cases the limbs can be 
spaced so as not to allow one to come exactly opposite another (127). 
I prefer to have only two limbs with the center stem, if it be not 
possible to grow four without having one opposite another. Three 
crown limbs are enough and four are plenty. 

It is dangerous to make cuts too long the first two or three years, 
as long cuts mean small limbs and weak frames. If the tree is 
planted early and makes a good growth, the first pruning may be 
necessary in August or September. This will be the thinning out 
of the top branches and cutting back rather short those limbs which 
are needed to make part of the framework. By first pruning I do 
not mean suckering or rubbing off the water sprouts, etc. It is 
very important to keep the tree, especially the trunk, free from 
suckers. 

A young tree should be watched very closely the first two or 
three years. If it forms the habit of suckering, especially on its 
trunk, there will be trouble in starting the sap in full flow through 
the limbs and foliage of the tree. Also allowing the suckers to 
grow stunts the growth of the tree. Therefore, the suckers should 
be taken off when they are so tender that they can be rubbed off with 
the hand. Rubbing them when they are very tender prevents knots 
from forming on the trunk or limbs. These I believe retard the free 
flow of the sap. 

In pruning a lemon tree planted nine months in the orchard the 
tall branches are cut back very short for the next deck or frame- 
work. This close cutting is done to develop strength in the crown 
of the tree before a heavy top growth is developed. Although this 
tree is only nine months old, some short, healthy wood developed 



PRUNING YOUNG TREES 239 

in the nursery has been allowed to remain in the crown. These 
little fruit limbs will, during the second year of growth, blossom 
and set some fruit. 

From now on the fruit spurs and fruit limbs may be left in the 
crown of the tree, so they may grow and produce lemons in limited 
quantities while the tree is young. Do not be alarmed if trees one 
or two years old begin to bear. Let them get the habit while they 
are young. A lemon tree properly trained and pruned, should bear 
a fair crop when three years old. The little limbs will first l)los- 
.som on the ends, bearing from one to three lemons. Then on the 
limb, back toward the trunk of the tree, fruit spurs will develop 
and set fruit. 

Tall limbs should be cut back from 6 to 12 inches, depending upon 
the fruit line, or deck, a vertical growth of fruit limbs that will 
blossom and set fruit on the ends, then bend downward, causing 
fruit spurs to develop on them. Each year a new deck of fruit wood 
or limbs is developed. This growth should be cut only when it be- 
comes too thick. 

It is important to go over the two-year trees at least twice a year 
to take all suckers and cut back the limbs that have grown out of 
proportion to the other part of the tree; such growth is round and 
not smaller than a lead pencil ; larger would be better. Never cut 
angular wood. In some cases it will be necessary to take out entire 
limbs if they have grown too thick, and also to cut those Iiack that 
have grown in the right place to add to the framework of the tree. 

Some of the tender growth will commence to develop rapidly 
early in the spring of the fourth year, and so will have to be gone 
over at least three times to thin out and cut back at proper points. 
A lemon tree at this age, properly pruned and trained, should show 
a well-defined fruit line. 

When a lemon tree reaches 10 or 12 years, very little cutting back 
is necessary. Yet almost all of the vertical growth should be taken 
out. A tree properly pruned from its infancy is brought to this age 
without large stubby limbs near the top of the tree. This method 
of pruning and training of a young lemon orchard will bring the 
trees to full bearing age without any long bare limbs devoid of fruit 
limbs and fruit spurs on the frame of the tree. Great care should 
be taken not to allow the growth to become too thick. Sometimes 
it may be necessary to take out a whole limb and open the tree to 
let in the air and light, so the fruit-bearing wood in the interior of 
the tree will bear fruit. The tendency is to allow much of the 
growth to become woody and, therefore, to be wasted because it 
will have to be taken out. Therefore, time will be lost in the proper 
building of the frame of the tree and in the development of fruit- 
bearing wood. 

191. Good rules in training and pruning young lemon trees. — 
1. Use sharp shears so as to make a smooth cut. 2. Never cut off 
a limb over ^-inch thick with the shears. Use a sharp saw, smooth 



240 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 

with a knife and then wax. Every Hmb J^-inch and over when cut 
should be waxed, especially in training and pruning trees up to five 
or six years old. 3. In cutting out limbs entirely, cut close and 
smooth, then wax. Do not leave stubs. 4. Never cut angular 
wood. Where a cut is made the wood should be round, 
no smaller than a lead pencil, and a little larger would be 
better. 5. Never crop or shear off ends of fruit limbs. Never 
shear the tree under any circumstances. 6. Keep the trees free 
of water sprouts, especially the trunks of the young trees. 
7. When in doubt leave it ! That is, when in doubt whether a limb 
ought to be cut out or cut off, leave it until next time. It may be 
taken out in the future if necessary, but if cut off it can never 
be put back. It is necessary to go over the orchard at least three 
times a year with the pruning shears. 8. Never cut out the little 
fruit limbs which grow in the framework of the tree unless they 
become too thick. 

A very important point which should not be overlooked is the soil. 
Unless the soil is kept in good physical condition, manufacturing 
food for the tree, one cannot expect good results. The framework 
of the tree has been built. On it are hundreds of fruit limbs, fruit 
spurs have set, thousands of buds are ready to produce more fruit 
limbs and spurs, and more fruit limbs are continually coming into 
bearing, so unless the tree is properly and regularly fed one cannot 
expect prolific and continuous fruiting. Every bud on the lemon 
tree is capable of growing fruit limbs and fruit spurs — even down on 
its trunk to the ground. Keep the food reservoir in good running 
order, furnishing the proper diet for the tree. With the proper 
handling of the soil and proper training and pruning one can de- 
velop a tree which will always and indefinitely be a prolific bearer 
and a profit to its owner. 



CHAPTER XI 



PRUNING MATURE TREES 



When the principles of pruning (Chapter V) have been 
properly applied in the education of young trees as de- 
scribed in Chapter X, the mature trees will, barring ac- 
cidents, need very little annual attention — a mere re- 
minder now and then of their training and purpose in life. 
From the time they come into bearing the pruner should 
expend his energy for sawing, hacking and whittling up- 
on some friendly wood pile where he will do no harm to 
his fruit crop prospects and the well-being of his trees. 
For the trees can be thrown out of bearing very easily by 
injudicious pruning. They 
may even be made to produce 
brush without fruit when 
erroneous pruning is extensive 
enough and continues from 
year to year. 

192, Bearing habit dictates 
style of pruning. — As already 
noted (56), fruit trees bear 
their fruit buds in two general 
ways — laterally, as in the 
peach; and terminally, as in the 
apple. There are many excep- 
tions where various varieties 
bear both ways, but the rule is 
as stated. Naturally the trees 
which produce fruit from lat- 
eral (axillary) buds, set more 
buds and will stand more prun- 
ing of the smaller branches 
than will the other kind, be- 




FIG. 201.— INVITING DISASTER. 
This shows how not to cut a 
limb. A stub is always a menace 
because decay is sure to enter. 



241 



242 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



cause this pruning helps to thin the fruit (106), Such a 
method applied to trees which produce terminal fruit buds, 
wholly or largely, would probably not only destroy too 
many fruit buds, but also upset the normal habit of 
growth and cause the development of wood, even to the 
extent of destroying the bearing habit altogether. Even 
with trees that produce axillary buds, good judgment is 
needed, for the bearing habit may differ among varieties 
as well as species. For instance, the peach bears its fruit 
buds on strong annual growths of last year; whereas the 

cherry blooms on less vigorous 
twigs. Therefore the severe 
pruning considered ideal for 
the peach would in the cherry 
develop many and large twigs 
which Avould bear little fruit. 
Apples and pears, which form 
axillary fruit buds and also 
terminal ones on young fruit 
spurs, must be pruned more 
severely than those which bear 
in the more normal way, be- 
cause they are prone to over- 
bear. To sum this matter up, 
then, the pruner may decide 
how much he shall prune each 
tree by noting the way in 
which it forms the majority of its fruit buds. 

193. Pruning the apple. — In a general way the follow- 
ing rules, based on the principles already discussed 
(Chapter V), will aid the pruner in developing his judg- 
ment of how to prune bearing trees, not only of apples 
but of other fruits : 

1. Study the habit of growth as well as the method of 
fruit bud formation. Trees which normally grow erect 
may be spread somewhat by cutting to outside buds ; 




FIG. 202 
UNPARDONABLE "PRUNING" 
This style of cutting courts dis- 
aster because it favors the en- 
trance of decay. The wound 
should be close to the trunk as 
shown in Fig. 93. 



PRUNING MATURE TREES 



243 



those which tend to sprawl may be raised slightly by 
pruning to upper buds (120). 

2. Save the small shoots, because many of them are 
fruit spurs and the others may later become such. If 
they are stripped off, the tree will not be as prolific. 
It may even be made barren (Figs. 171, 189). 

3. Remove dead, diseased and broken limbs, making 
the cuts cleanly and close to the larger tree parts which 
bear them (Fig. 93). 

4. Cut out water sprouts and suckers except where 
needed to fill in gaps. Where needed, shorten them so as 




FIG. 203— CROSS SECTION OF TRUNK SHOWN IN FIG. 204. 

At the top a stub healed over but decayed beneath. At the left a little healthy stub 

healed over. Below, the hole left by decay of limb shown diagonally in Fig. 204. 

to compel branching and later the fruit-bearing habit. In 
properly handled bearing trees such growths are not ex- 
cessive either in number or size, so there is usually little 
need of saving them. They are of most interest to old trees 



244 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 




which need renovation. In such cases they should be 

shortened to two or three good buds so they will form 

fruit spurs. If they do not so 
develop they should be re- 
moved. The easiest way to re- 
move water sprouts is while 
they are still succulent in mid- 
spring, when they may be 
easily pulled ofif by boys. 

5. Avoid cutting large 
branches as much as possible. 
Rather remove an equal 
amount of wood by cutting sev- 
eral small branches, say the 
thickness of one's thumb, 
mainly because small wounds 
will heal quicker than large 
ones, but also because the re- 
moval of large branches leaves 
big gaps in some places, where- 
as others will be as dense as 

ever. Sun scald of the branches often follows the removal 

of too large branches. 

6. Cut back leaders which are over-developing and 
threatening to injure the form of the tree, but always cut 
back to some shoot which will take up the work and 
also aid in healing the wound. In other words, never 
leave a stub (Fig. 92). Following this rule will aid 
in keeping the trees low-headed and, hence, also help the 
work of spraying, thinning and harvesting. 

7. At least one of such limbs as cross or seriously in- 
terfere with others, especially in the interior of the tree, 
should be removed. When trees have been properly 
trained, however, these limbs will be neither large nor 
numerous before discovered. 

8. If necessary thin out the top. Usually, however, it 



FIG. 204 
HOW TREES BURY STUBS 

The lightest colored wood is the 
youngest. It is being used to try 
to bury the stub. Decay has rotted 
out much of the stub wood down 
into the heart of the tree. In the 
lower left corner, note that the 
wood has healed in a small decay- 
ing stub. No hope for trees 
handled in this way. 



PRUNING MATURE TREES 



245 



will not be necessary to do much of this because the rules 
given above will have done enough thinning. 

9. Branches that threaten to form Y crotches should 
be handled as already indicated (127). 

10. Should a neglected orchard need very severe prun- 
ing to bring it back to shape, it will usually be an ad- 
vantage to do the work in the winter preceding a full 
crop year. 

194. Pruning to remedy winter injury.— Pruning experiments 
were undertaken by William Stuart* with a view of bettering the 
condition of some winter-injured trees. These were inaugurated 
in early June in an orchard where a number of eight-year-old 
Rhode Island Greening trees were severely injured. Some of the 
trees were severely pruned back after the secondary buds had 
pushed out new growths, others were somewhat less vigorously 
handled, while yet others were left untouched. It was thought that 
the severe pruning of trees on which new growths were being 
pushed out at the base of the limbs would tend to throw all the 
strength of the tree into a few 
branches, thereby securing dur- 
ing the first season a much more 
vigorous development as well as 
a much more shapely head. 

Photographs were made of 
the injured trees both before 
and after pruning June 9, again 
on August 15 of the same sea- 
son, and a final set September 
27 of the following season. A 
careful study of these affords 
little evidence that pruning was 
beneficial. A comparison of one 
set would show a decided ad- 
vantage in favor of pruning, 
while that of another set would 
be equally favorable to the un- 
pruned. While no very sweep- 
ing conclusions can be formed 
from a single experiment, con- 
ducted on a rather small scale and 
under unfavorable conditions, 
this much at least may be said: 




* Vermonf Experiment Station An- 
nual Report, 1901. 



FK;. 2(15.— winter injured RHODE 
ISI AND GREENING APPLE TREE 
BEFORE PRUNING IN EARLY 
JUNE. NOTICE EXTENT OF 
DAMAGE. 



246 



PRINCIPLES AXD PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



(1). That in cases of winter injury like that mentioned above 
practically nothing is to be gained by the hpsty removal of the 
greater portion of the head of the tree. In other words, severe 
pruning is inadvisable and is probably more often injurious than 
beneficial. (3). That in the light of the observations made it would 
seem advisable to defer pruning operations to the latter part of the 
growing season or possibly until the following spring. (3). That 
whenever pruning is to be done no more branches should be removed 
than is necessary to preserve the balance of the tree top. (4). That 
winter injury could be avoided by keeping the tree in a thrifty, vigor- 
ous condition. Weak, unhealthy trees are less able to stand extremes 
of temperature than thrifty ones. Compare statements by Whitten 
(203). 

195. Mature pear trees, if properly trained while young 
and if healthy, require little pruning. Even when un- 




FIG. 206 
PRUNED APPLE 
This is the same 
tree as shown in 
Fig. 205. 




FIG. 207— AUGUST 
Tree shown in Fig. 
206 as seen in August; 
67 days after pruning. 




FIG. 208 
SEPTEMBER SHOWING 
One hundred and ten 
days after pruning tree 
shown in Fig. 207. 



pruned they bear tolerably well. 
But for high-grade fruit judicious 
pruning is necessary. In general the fruiting habit resembles 
the apple. The habit of growth is more erect, but pear trees 
may be readily trained in almost any form desired, as, for 
instance, espaliers, cordons, etc. (Chapter XVII). Gen- 
erally the trees in commercial orchards develop as nature 
dictates, but broad, low heads are not hard to secure. 



PRUNING MATURE TREES 



247 



One disadvantage of tall trees is that the fruits borne 
high up are knocked off or rendered unsightly by wind ; 
another that spraying, thinning and harvesting are need- 
lessly expensive. The form which the mature tree shall 
maintain is mainly decided by the pruning of the young 
trees. Heading back to outward pointing buds and twigs 
will tend toward broadness of top, and if the erect lead- 
ers are cut, the trees should be kept low-headed without 
much trouble. To attain this form, the work should be 
done while the trees are young, otherwise heading back 
a tree which has grown at random will produce great 
quantities of wood which will not bear. If the tree is 
in good bearing when this 
heading-in is done, the fruit 
spurs will probably develop 
long shoots instead of fruits, 
and this will be all the more 
pronounced when the pruning 
is done in the "off year," for it 
will force the development of 
the branch buds. 

It is an erroneous notion that 
the pear must not be pruned. 
Some varieties, notably Anjou, 
must be pruned severely while 
dormant in order to get profit- 
able crops of fruit. If not so 
pruned, a large proportion of 
the blossoms or the young fruit 
will fall. Men successful with 
such varieties cut out a good 
deal of wood annually until the 
trees begin to bear good crops. 

Tardy blooming varieties must not be pruned heavily 
while dormant because they would thus develop wood 
(83). Pruning in early summer is sometimes helpful. 




FIG. 209— HEALTHY PEAR BARK 
SHOWING LENTICELS 



248 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 




FIG. 210— FUNGI ATTACK 
INJURED BARK 



Stripping (99) may also help. It is 
probably safer than girdling. 

Just how much pruning may be 
done in mature pear trees must be 
left to the pruner's judgment and 
experience, the idea being more to 
thin and thus improve the quality of 
the fruit than to remove wood for 
its own sake. Such a policy will 
tend toward regular annual bearing. 
Pruning of this kind, however, can- 
not wholly obviate thinning the 
fruit itself in summer. Both prac- 
tices are necessary as a general rule. 
196. Pear blight, if it attacks the 
trees, will upset even the best prun- 
ing methods. Yet the damage this disease may do may 
be very largely prevented by a 
proper system of training (173). 
Heavy pruning shou Id be avoided 
as much as possible ; also all soil 
management that makes for heavy 
growth — notably over-cultivation, 
over-fertilizing with nitrogenous 
manures and the excessive use of 
leguminous cover crops — because 
trees in rank growth are more sus- 
ceptible to blight than those less 
amply nourished. Since the chief 
points of infection are the blos- 
soms, thence through the fruit 
spurs to the branches, the develop- 
ment of fruit spurs on main limbs 
should be prevented as much as 
possible, 
strong new wood should be encour- This stub was blighted be- 

1 ,1 J £ ' 1. cause the pruning saw was 

aged so that new fruit spurs ma not sterilized. 




Instead, the growth of fig- ^i^-pear^stub ad- 



PRUNING MATURE TREES 



249 



be developed to take the place of those that must l>e 
removed because of becoming infected. The two im- 
perative rules for preventing the spreading of blight are 
(1) cut out and burn all infected parts, making the cuts in 
healthy wood below the lowest point of discoloration of 
the wood (as viewed in cross section of the twig or 
branch) and (2) the thorough sterilization of all wounds 
and tools after making each and every cut. (Figs. 183, 
209 to 213.) 

197. The quince is trained cither as a bush with severpl 
stems or as a tree with only one stem. Each form has its 
advocates. The points claimed for the bush form are 
that damage from borers is likely to be less serious than 
where only one stem is maintained and that there may be 
a constant succession of new wood to replace the old. 
The claims for the tree form are 
that the plantation is easier to man- 
age than where there are several 
stems and that the likelihood of 
damage from T)orers is less seri- 
ous than it is believed to be, pro- 
vided proper attention is given the 
trees. 

To secure the bush form one 
sprout is allowed to grow each year 
from the base of the plant in the 
same kind of way that currant and 
gooseberry canes are allowed to 
grow. The old stems are removed 
after having fruited three to six 
times, depending mainly upon the 
health of the plant. Sometimes 
there may be as many as six or 
seven stems of various ages in a 
bush, but four is probably the com- 
monest number. The tree form is 
produced in the same way as in 




FIG. 212 
BLIGHT SPREAD FROM 
PRUNING WOUND 
This stub became in- 
fected from an unsterilized 
saw. The blight spread 
downward rapidly. As seen 
now the diseased tissue has 
been pruned away and the 
wound is ready for disin- 
fection. 



250 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



the growing of other fruit trees. Some varieties are 
more amenable than others to this form. 

Annual pruning after the quince reaches the bearing 
age consists in thinning the young growth and shorten- 




FIG. 213— CANKERED LIMB SHOWING BLIGHT EXUDATIONS 
These sticky, milky drops are made up almost wholly of blight bacteria 

ing the balance 50 to 70 per cent. When properly man- 
aged, the annual growths should be frorn 1 to 2 feet, with 
an excellent range of 15 to 18 inches. When the growth 
is rank the buds which are to produce blooming shoots 
will be near the tips and so will largely be lost in the 
pruning. The best buds, by the way, are not usually the 
terminals but the laterals on the upper half of the annual 
growths. The main ideas in annual pruning should be 
to keep the plant well within bounds and to secure an 
ample supply of new shoots each year. Since the quince 
is susceptible to fire blight, care should be exercised to 
cut out and burn affected parts whenever discovered, just 
as in the case of the pear (196). 

198. The mature cherry tree requires little pruning if 
It has been properly started and trained for three or four 



PRUNING MATURE TREES 251 

years. The aim should be to keep it low-headed. There 
is no difficulty in doing this with the sour varieties and 
even the tall-growing sweet varieties may be made to 
form spreading heads like apple trees by judicious heading 
back. Unless so pruned sweet varieties will often reach 
heights of 35 or 40 feet when 25 years old. Since the 
bearing wood is always near the ends of the branches too 
much time will be required to harvest the crop. Then, 
too, spraying is more difficult and costly on such tall 
trees. 

The aims with both sweet and sour varieties should 
be to keep the fruiting parts of the trees as near the 
ground as possible, to develop fruiting wood throughout 
the whole top and to keep the trunks and frame limbs 
well shaded so danger of sun scald will be reduced to a 
minimum. In all pruning to develop fruiting wood, the 
fruiting habit of the cherry (56, 64) must be borne in 
mind, because trees with this habit will not submit to ex- 
cessive cutting. Over-pruning will force excessive growths 
of strong wood which bears fruit buds sparsely. On 
the other hand the fruit spurs on trees neglected from the 
pruning standpoint, become puny and spindling after 
bearing constantly for several years, and what fruit is 
borne appears singly instead of in clusters of two or more. 
Also the fruits so produced are usually of inferior size. 

Varieties which produce abundance of bloom, but 
which set fruit sparsely, thus indicate that they are either 
not being pruned correctly or severely enough, or that 
they are self-sterile. In the former case it is recommended 
that they be severely pruned while dormant ; in the latter, 
that fertilizing varieties be either grafted or budded in 
or planted near by. In cases where few or no blossoms 
are produced the trouble may be that the trees have been 
pruned too severely or fed too liberally, or, in irrigated 
orchards, that too much water has been applied during 



252 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



the previous season. In each of these cases the reverse 
method is indicated. 

199. The mature plum tree. — While there are many 
species of plums which differ more or less widely in 




FIG. 214— FROST-KILLED PEACH WOOD VARIOUSLY HANDLED 
Left, tree not cut back in spring before or spring after the winter injury. 
Middle, tree cut back both spring before and after that winter. Right, tree cut 
back spring after, but not before said winter. The dark portion represents new 
wood formed since the injury. 

their habits of growth, yet growers of varieties now used 
for commercial purposes agree that the trees must be 
pruned far less severely than peach trees because the 
fruit is borne largely on spurs which may continue pro- 
lific for four or more years, but more severely than the 
apple, partly because some of the fruit is produced by 
lateral buds and partly because it is necessary to 
renew the bearing wood oftener than in the case of the 
apple. 

Since the trunks and the frame limbs of plum trees 



PRUNING MATURE TREES 



253 




are easily injured by sun, pruning should aim to keep 
plenty of leafage in the top to shade these susceptible 
parts. Yet it is necessary to cut back and thin out the 
tops of most varieties, especially of the Americana class, 
so as to maintain a good form, a low head and enough 
light and air to favor the production of first quality fruit. 
The Domestica varieties, as a rule, including the prunes, 
are pruned probably 
less than any of the va- 
rieties of the other 
groups. Those varie- 
ties, however, that tend 
to overbear require 
more or less thinning 
out of the fruiting 
wood so as to augment 
both size and quality of 
the fruit, to favor reg- 
ular annual bearing 
and to facilitate work, especially thinning and harvesting. 
The Japanese varieties as a group will stand fairly 
severe pruning. Special care should be taken to avoid 
weak crotches (Figs. 99, 100, 102) because the Japanese 
varieties have unusually brittle wood. In general, the 
method of pruning employed with the apricot will be 
found to work well with the Japanese varieties because 
the habit of fruit bearing is closely similar. When neg- 
lected the trees tend to develop "full" and "off" years. 
Annual heading back and thinning out of the smaller 
branches will develop strong new growths of wood that 
later serve well in fruit bearing. Pruning to thin the 
fruit, while of some service, is not as productive of good 
results as in the case of the peach. First quality plums 
demand also summer thinning of the fruits. This rule 



FIG. 215— WINTER INJURY OF PEACH 
Left one and extreme right healthy; others 

injured. Dark parts are injured wood. Light 

ones new wood forming. 



254 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 




applies to Domestica and other varieties as well as to the 
Japanese kinds. 

200. The mature apricot tree resembles in habit of 
growth the peach in some respects and the cherry in 
others. Hence the method of pruning is a modification 
of the methods employed on these fruit trees. Since the 
apricot while young grows vigorously, it may then be 
pruned and trained like the peach so as to produce a 
sturdy framework and secure a broad low head. When 

the growth calms down 
at three or four years 
to a normal gait, it pro- 
duces less wood than 
the peach, so that from 
that time forward the 
pruning may consist 
merely of heading back 
and thinning out the 
stronger growths — just 
enough to keep the 
fruiting wood in thrifty 
condition and the tree 
well in hand. Such pruning will reduce but not obviate 
the necessity of summer thinning. 

Aftei' the trees get old severe pruning may be necessary 
to develop new fruiting wood in the interior of the tops. 
This necessity is perhaps of even more frequent occur- 
rence than with the peach. Hence it is advisable to keep 
close watch of the trees from year to year so as to avoid 
neglect; for even though the apricot will stand much 
neglect, it will respond nobly to proper care. 

As in the case of the peach the pruning season in com- 
mercial orchards is through February and March, it is 
well to delay the work until just before growth starts 
so as to avoid unnecessary cutting of the fruit buds that 
have survived the winter. In the Pacific Coast states 
summer pruning is popular, the work b^ing- done as soon 



FIG. 216— WINTER INJURIES 
Left to right, injured apple, healthy apple, 
injured plum, healthy plum. Dark part, in- 
jured; light ring, new wood forming. 



PRl'XING MATURE TREES 



Zo:) 



as the fruit has been gathered. The result is a strength- 
ened growth of the laterals that have already started. 
These laterals produce fruit buds for the following 
year's crop. Just how far this method may be api)licable 
to other parts of the country remains to be seen. So far as 
the author is aware, it has not come into prominence in 
orchard practice east of the Rockies — but there are few 



t ■ 















m?A:M^^?^ /^^-r^^ 



FIG. 217— POOR GROWTH OF PEACH TREE NOT PRUNED AFTER SEVERE 
WINTER INJURY 

commercial apricot orchards in this great area! In some 
of the mountain states the practice has been followed by 
a good deal of winterkilling, but this has been more or 
less balanced by tardy bloom, the flowers appearing sev- 
eral days later than on trees not summer pruned and 



256 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



Upon which the wood is generally more fully ripened. 
Where late spring frosts are to be expected summer 
pruning may thus be an advantage, since the blossoms 
may appear after the danger has passed. 

201. The peach more quickly responds to pruning than 
any other woody fruit-bearing plant, with the exception 
of the grape. The pleasure that peach growers take in 
pruning it accounts largely for the fact that peach or- 




r*-* . .» ^^ A' a^^.r I i-s 



FIG. 218— PEACH TREES CUT BACK WITH VARYING DEGREES OF SEVERITY 
AFTER BEING INJURED BY A SEVERE WINTER 

chards generally look better and are better than orchards 
of other tree fruits. Failures to have well-pruned peach 
trees are most often due to want of nerve to cut. There 
is less danger of over-doing the pruriing'than vvith any 
other fruit except the grape. This is because of its axil- 
lary method of producing its fruit buds. 

Mature peach trees should make annual growths of 
18 to 24 inches. It should, therefore, be the aim of the 
orchardist to secure abundance of such growths by con- 
sistent annual pruning' 'as well as effective soil manage- 



PRUNING MATURE TREES 



257 



ment. The removal of unnecessary wood and the effort 
to maintain a well-shaded tree are incidental to the thin- 
ning out and shortening-in of the annual growths. It is 
customary to cut out 40 to 60 per cent of the new growths 
— the poorer ones, of course, first — and to shorten the bal- 
ance fully as much. Thus a total of 70 to 80 per cent of 
the young wood is cut out annually. The arguments 
against allowing all the annual wood to grow are that the 




FIG. 219— TREE HEADED BACK .NVORE SEVERELY THAf^ IT SH(IL i D Bh AM) 

TOO MANY BRANCHES LEFT. IT WILL GIVE A VERY LARGE UPRIGHT 

DENSE GROWTH, LIKE THAT SHOWN IN FIG. 225. 

trees become too thick, too wide spreading, too easily 
broken down and the fruit too inferior. 

The pruning just referred to is done preferably just 
before growth starts in spring, when it is comparatively 
easy to distinguish living buds from those killed by frost 



258 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



during winter. Such pruning aids in thinning the fruit 
(106), but does not wholly obviate summer thinning. 
Always the aim should be to keep the trees low-headed, 
so as much fruit as possible may be gathered without the 
aid of ladders, and when ladders are used at all they 
should be not more than 6 feet high. 

202. Pruning vs. peach bud vigor.— W. H. Chandler* experimented 
with peach trees to determine the effect of pruning and trimming 
upon bud vigor. His main conclusions follow : 

In Missouri nearly every winter warm weather starts the buds 
into growth more or less. Fruit buds on trees that have made a 
vigorous growth, caused by reasonably 
severe heading back or by cultivation, are 
the less liable to winter injury. Heading 
back may be too severe, however, since 
in any year the fruit buds most likely to 
come through the winter safely are those 
at the base of the whips of new wood. If 
the heading back has been too severe, the 
growth will be so dense that no fruit buds 
will be formed at the base of those whips. 
In the experiment station orchard the 
trees having the smallest percentage of 
buds killed were those trained to a 
spreading, open head, and forced by prun- 
ing and cultivation to make a vigorous 
growth. 

The fruit on trees with spreading heads 
does not rot so badly as that on trees with 
dense heads. The fruit on trees making 
a vigorous growth, unless the growth is 
too vigorous, is larger than that on trees 
making smaller growth. This is true ex- 
cept with early varieties, where a tree making a rather small Wood 
growth bears the better fruit. 

Thinning the fruit enables the tree to set more hardy fruit buds 
for the next crop [than where it is not practiced]. In the station 
orchard a temperature of 6 degrees below zero one winter killed 
from 5 to 40 per cent more buds on the unthinned side of a tree 
than on the thinned side. 

In experiments conducted by F. A. Waugh in Massachusetts, 
peach trees left unpruned for nine years became open headed and 
of vase form, but the lower parts of the branches were bare and 
the fruiting wood sparse, weak and high up in the trees. The trees 
were also much less vigorous than pruned trees of the same variety; 




FIG. 220— PROPERLY CUT 
BACK PEACH 

This five-year tree had 
been severely winter injured. 
It was saved by radical cut- 
ting. 



* Missouri Experiment Station Bulletin 74, 



PRUNING MATURE TREES 



259 



several died from winter injury. Trees in an adjacent row headed 
back moderately two or three times were thick topped with much 
weak sappy growth on the insides, Init the annual growth was more 
vigorous and the trees healthier than in those not pruned. More 
and stronger fruit branches were shorter, stronger and more 
capable of bearing a large crop of fruit. It is concluded from these 
experiments that the best form of peach tree cainiot bo secured 
and maintained without pruning. 

As a result of three years' special experiments, Waugh 

concludes that the heading back of peach trees in early 









5, t • '^'^ 







FIG. 221 — UNSATISFACTORY GROWTH OF PEACH NOT PRUNED BACK 
SEVERELY ENOUGH AFTER WINTER INJURY 

Spring is good practice and in all cases advisable. In 
this pruning from one-third to two-thirds of the wood of 
the previous year should be removed, depending on the 
number of living buds on the one-year-old wood. When 
from any cause there are no fruit buds, advantage should 



260 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



be taken to cut back with comparative severity. Only 
in extraordinary cases, however, should the cutting ex- 
tend back to two or three-year-old branches. 

In treating winter-injured peach trees, Waugh left one block 
unpruned, another pruned in midsummer, a third cut back one-third 
to three-fourths of the previous year's growth, and a fourth headed 
back near the trunk so only the stubs of main branches were left. 
While a large number (93 per cent) of the unpruned trees lived, 
the growth made by the headed-in trees was much better. Ninety 
per cent lived. The experiment also seems to indicate that trees 
seriously injured by freezing should not be cut back close to the 
main trunks. Only 52 per cent of the trees so treated lived after 




FIG. 222— PEACH IN FOREGROUND SHOWS GOOD GROWTH 

This picture taken in June shows how trees differ. The tree at the left is slow 

starting into growth. Both trees were cut back severely after winter injury. 

treatment. (Compare statements with those of Chandler 202 and 
Whitten 203.) 

Experiments conducted at the Michigan sub-station indicate that 
pruning (heading-in) of peach trees late in the fall and in early 
winter if continued may result in serious injury. 

Experiments conducted* for years to determine the best seasons 

* Hawaii Station Report, 1913, Pages 22-26. 



PRUNING MATURE TREES 



261 



and methods for peach pruning in the tropical climate of the low- 
lands in Hawaii, have shown best results when practically the whole 
top is renewed annually. Tlic pruning is done in June very soon 
after the gathering of the fruit. Although the foliage is almost 
entirely removed, the trees soon send out many new branches, 
which grow vigorously until winter, when they begin maturing 
fruit buds. All suckers not needed to improve the shape of the tree 
are removed. 







FIG. 273— ONE SEASON S GROWTH OF EIGHT-YEAR PEACH AFTER CUTTING 
BACK TO WERE BRANCH STUBS FOLLOWING SEVERE WINTER INJURY 

203. Peach pruning experiments.*— Experiments conducted by 
J. C. Whitten to determine the best method of pruning peach trees, 
especially those injured by winter, have yielded tlie following sum- 
marized results. 

1. Under normal conditions, when peach trees have passed the 
winter safely and promise to produce a crop of fruit, they should 
be pruned [late] each winter by cutting back the main limbs, so as 

* Missouri Station Bulletin 5S. 



262 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



to leave one-half to two-thirds of the new growth which contains 
the fruit buds. 2. When the fruit buds have been winterkilled, the 
main limbs may be cut back more severely, thus securing more 
compact trees and avoiding the formation of long, straggling limbs 
which the trees have a tendency to form if they are not cut back. 
3. The amount of cutting back must depend upon the extent to 
which the trees have been injured. 

4. If only the fruit buds have been killed and the wood of the 
tree is uninjured, trees of compact form, if they have been annually 
pruned, should have their main limbs shortened so as to leave only 
a few inches of the new wood. If, however, the limbs are getting 
long and straggling they may be cut back into two or even three- 




FIG. 224— OLD MIXON FREE PEACH WITH SPREADING HEAD 

Note how well this form admits light well down into the tree. This insures 
buds formed at the base of the new wood where they are hardiest. One winter 
when this tree had only 60% of its buds killed, others of the same variety with 
denser heads had 86 to 907o killed. 

year-old wood. Before severe cutting is done the grower should be 
"certain that there are not enough live buds left to produce fruit. 
The peach sets such an abundance of fruit buds that if a small 
percentage of them have escaped injury there may still be enough 
to produce a paying crop of fruit. 

5. When the winter is so severe that not only the fruit buds are 
killed, but the wood is badly discolored, the trees may be invigorated 




FIG. 225— PEACH TREE WITH VERY DENSE NEW GROWTH AFTER HEADING 

BACK TOO SEVERELY AS IN FIG. 219. 
... "^^^ *'"'y b^ds formed are at the ends of the branches where they are easily 
Killed. A much smaller number of buds on this tree survived the winter following 
the heading back than lived on more open trees of the same variety. 



264 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



by cutting them back severely. The following is a summary of 
results of pruning peach trees subsequent to a severe freeze : 

6. Peach trees which were not pruned, or in which only a part 
of the new wood was removed after the freeze, started into growth 
first in spring and for two weeks appeared to be in more vigorous 
condition than did pruned trees. 7. This apparent vigor was only 

temporary, however. Some of the 
trees died a little later and none 
of them made satisfactory growth 
throughout the season. They 
seemed to have used up all their 
energy in making a start. At the 
close of the season they had made 
but little new growth, and this 
was confined mainly to the tops 
of the branches, the old limbs and 
trunks containing only dead twigs. 
Their annual layer of new wood 
was very thin and some of their 
roots died. 

8. Trees of bearing age cut 
back so as to leave only the trunk 
and the bases of the main limbs 
died in some cases, and where 
they did live their growth was un- 
satisfactory, many of the sprouts 
starting from the unreliable seed- 
ling stock below ground. 

9. Trees of bearing age cut 
back into two-year-old wood in 
the case of young trees, and to 
three or four-year-old wood in 
older trees, thus leaving stubs of 
the main limbs 3 to 4 feet long, 
made the best growth. They 
made 6 to 9 feet of new growth 
and entirely renewed their heads 
during the following season. They 
also developed a good layer of 
new wood on their trunks and 
formed a good crop of fruit buds. 

10. In the case of two-year-old 
trees, those cut back so as to leave 




FIG. 226 
GREENSBORO FIVE YEARS OLD 
One of the main limbs pruned im- 
mediately after harvesting last year's 
crop. See lower right-hand part of 
frame limb in Fig. 227. 



the trunk and spurs of the main branches 2 or 3 inches long did 
best and made fine heads. 

11. One-year-old trees cut back nearly to the original bud and 
with a single sprout trained up during the growing season made 
fine trees. 



PRUNING MATURE TREES 



265 



12. The principal growth took place near the extremities of the 
parts left after pruning. Trees cut back into more than four-year- 
old wood failed to grow at all in some cases, showing that in very 
old wood the buds are too dormant to be easily started into growth. 
The amount to cut away in renewing winter-injured trees requires 
good judgment in choosing between leaving too much wood (which 
results in weak growth and too high heads) and cutting back too 
far into old, dormant wood that will not start new limbs. 

13. Experiments to determine the best time to prune showed that 
trees pruned any time after the severe cold spell up to the time the 
buds began to start in spring grew equally well. 

14. Good cultivation is of more than usual benefit to peach trees 
during the spring and summer following severe winter injury. 




FIG. 227— GREENSBORO PEACH. FIVE YEARS OLD, PRUNED IMMEDIATELY 
AFTER HARVESTING FRUIT IN EARLY JUNE 

201. Summer pruning the peach.^^— it is the usual custom lo prune 
peach trees while dormant, in late winter or early spring. When 
pruning is done before growth begins in the spring, the new growth 
has the entire season for its development. When summer pruning 
is not practiced, the more rapidly growing upper shoots shade the 
lower, slower growing ones, which in most cases die. The result 
is that year by year the fruiting wood gets farther and farther from 

* Paragraph 204 has been condensed from C. A. Keffer's Bulletin (108) of the 
Tennessee Agricultural Experiment Station 



266 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



the ground; so in the course of five or six years, even when the 
trees are regularly pruned, it is necessary to use high step-ladders 
to harvest the crop. Every few years dehorning becomes advisable 
to keep the trees within reasonable limits. 

Moreover, when the fruiting wood is permitted to form prin- 
cipally toward the outer parts of the main limbs the bark of those 
near the base of the tree is open to sun scald during winter, thus 
shortening the life of the tree. The difficulty of spraying and har- 
vesting is greatly increased when the trees are high. For all which 
reasons it is desirable to keep the crowns of peach trees as close 
to the ground as possible. 

In order to get a full crop from a low-crowned tree, however, 
approximately as much fruit-bearing wood is necessary as in trees 




FIG. 228— GREENSBORO, FIVE YEARS OLD, NOT SUMMER PRUNED 

of the usual shape. The purpose of summer pruning is to enable 
the tree to develop fruiting wood on the lower part of the main or 
skeleton branches, which are usually bare. 

Seventy trees, including early and late varieties, were set 18 x 20 
feet. In the following spring one-year-old trees were interplanted 
for a peach borer investigation, so since then the trees have stood 
9 X 10 feet. As the trees came into bearing it was deemed desirable 
to ascertain how long they could be kept profitable at this close dis- 



PRUNING MATURE TREES 



267 



tance. Heavy pruning was resorted to, and last year the usual 
winter pruning was supplemented by summer pruning. 

Previous work of a similar nature had proved that in seasons 
of average moisture the Greensboro and all earlier varieties set a 
crop of fruit buds after harvest. Greensboro ripens the first week 
in June; Red Bird ten days or two weeks earlier. These two va- 
rieties were pruned the second week in June. The trees were di- 
vided into four groups, with an unpruned check row, and in each 
group the wood of the previous year's growth, whether it had pro- 
duced peaches or not, was pruned back to varying lengths, from 
1 to 8 inches. 





^^n^BSB^^^^V^',^Q^^i^^^^^^^^^^^l 












^Sfl^l 



FIG. 229— GREENSBORO, FIVE YEARS OLD, PRUNED IN AUGUST 

By far the best results attended the close pruning. Where the 
spur was very short the new growth in many cases sprang from 
its base and, at most, it was close to the main limb that supported 
it. But in the long spurs in most instances the new growth was 
near the extremity of the spur, thus defeating measurably the pur- 
pose of the pruning. Many spurs did not send out new shoots. 

In all cases of early pruning the new wood was well set with 
fruit buds during the season, as is shown in Fig. 227, a picture of a 
Greensboro tree photographed when in full bloom in April. It is 
difficult by photography to show the fruit on the tree because leaves 
and fruits are so nearly the same color and the picture is necessarily 
greatly reduced. As the peach blooms in advance of leafage, the 
blossoms show exactly the location of the fruiting wood and trees 
in full bloom are therefore used in illustrating this article. 



268 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 

Comparing Fig. 227 with Fig. 228, a tree that was not summer 
pruned, it is seen that the result of summer pruning is to bring the 
fruit of the next season nearer to the main limbs, and also that in 
the unpruned tree the lower part of the crown has very many less 
blossoms than the tree pruned by the middle of June. Figure 226 
is a detailed view of the lower part of one of the main limbs of the 
tree shown in Fig. 227. In the lower left-hand corner the trunk of 
the tree and its separation into three main limbs is shown. It will 
be observed that this limb (and the others equally) is clothed with 
blossom-covered shoots from its base outward. Fruit set on 




FIG. 230— GREENSBORO, FIVE YEARS OLD, PRUNED IN JULY 

every one of these shoots, so fully a fourth of the entire crop of 
the tree is produced within 4 feet of the ground. All the fruit on 
the tree can be picked from the ground by a man of average height. 

Early summer pruning permits the formation of fruit buds dur- 
ing the remainder of the growing season for the next year's crop. 
But late pruning is harmful to the succeeding crop. The tree shown 
in Fig. 229 is a Greensboro tree pruned in August. Very few fruit 
buds formed on the new growth, which was very short. A Greens- 
boro tree, pruned in July (Fig. 230) set a good stand of fruit buds 
in the upper part of the crown, but the lower part is relatively bare. 
Red Bird trees pruned in early June were quite as full of bloom in 
the lower branches as was the Greensboro tree shown in Fig. 227. 

The later varieties respond in practically the same manner to 
early and late summer pruning. Figure 231 is a Belle (of Georgia) 



PRUNING MATURE TREES 



269 



tree, pruned in early June, and Fig. 232 is a Belle not summer- 
pruned. The late-pruned I'elle trees were no better than the late- 
pruned trees of the earlier varieties. Champion gave results so 
similar that it was not thought necessary to multiply photographs. 
Elberta is not included in this orchard, but in all probability its 
action would be the same. 

To prune any variety of later ripening season than Greensboro 
after its crop is harvested would seem to be unprotitable. Is it 
feasible to prune Carman and all later varieties before their crop 
is gathered? What sacrifice of crop is involved? 




FIG. 231— FIVE-YEAR BELLE OF GEORGIA PRUNED IN EARLY JUNE 



Carman, Belle and Champion trees were pruned as described 
above in early June, July and August. In every tree there are slioots 
that do not bear, and others that grow so closely together on the main 
limbs as to shade one another too much for good fruit develop- 
ment. In the case of these varieties the barren shoots, and a part 
of those placed close together, were pruned, leaving fruiting wood 
the whole length of the main limbs. In this way all the trees pro- 
duced as full a crop as they should. In all cases the early-pruned 
trees developed fruiting wood in the lower part of the crowns, as 
indicated in Fig. 231. The late-pruned trees and the unpruned trees 



270 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 

gave much less fruiting wood, particularly in the lower part of the 
crown (Fig. 232). 

All peach trees tend to develop a stronger growth toward their 
outermost parts, whatever the pruning. This is seen in all the trees 
illustrated herein. But if the center of the crown is kept open, 
enough light will reach the lower parts to insure the development 
of a profitable crop, where in unpruned trees little or no fruit is 
produced. 

It is recognized that summer pruning involves additional ex- 
pense to the grower. But the method is quickly learned and cheaply 




FIG. 232— FIVE-YEAR BELLE OF GEORGIA NOT SUMMER-PRUNED 

employed. All that is necessary is to cut back the wood of the 
previous year's growth before the middle of June, and only in the 
inner part of the crown ; the outer branches get enough light 
laterally. Figure 233 is a fourteen-year-old Greensboro tree that was 
summer-pruned after its crop — a full one — was harvested in June. 
It has been dehorned twice, the last time three years previous. Its 
center has not been kept as open as in the trees previously illustrated, 
but there is a fine setting of bloom throughout the crown. Fully 
one-third of its crop is set within 5 feet of the ground, the total 
height of the tree being 9 feet. Compare this tree with Fig. 234, in 
which the new wood was permitted to grow unpruned throughout 
the summer. The practice of summer pruning for early varieties 
at least, would seem to be established. 

Summer pruning will enable the grower to develop a full crop 
of fruit in the lower part of his late varieties if he trains the trees 



PRUNING MATURE TREES 



271 



properly. Let us suppose a tree, open at the center, with fruiting 
wood well distrihuted along its main or skeleton limbs from the 
crotch to their ends. Young trees in which three skeleton limbs 
radiate from the trunk in spreading fashion will produce new shoots 
at close intervals. If these new shoots are pruned alternately, be- 
fore the middle of June, one set being allowed to grow throughout 
the season and the other pruned to a spur, the following year the 
unpruned shoots will bear a crop. The second year they will be 
reduced to spurs and the alternate set will bear. Thus both late 
and early varieties may be kept in full bearing the entire length of 
their frame limbs. Even with this heavy pruning the greatest con- 
venience of harvesting and spraying the low-crowned trees will 
warrant whatever increased labor the plan involves. 

When winter pruning alone is practiced heavy growth follows. 
Such new shoots as form on the lower parts of the crown reach 




FIG. 233— GREENSBORO TREE. SEVEN YEARS OLD, NOT SUMMER-PRUNED 

up for light, and before midsummer are crowding one another so 
much as to overtop completely the weaker growths. By fall these 
smaller shoots are dead, and because of lack of light very few fruit 
buds have formed on the lower parts of the surviving shoots. Thus 
the fruit forms toward the ends of the new wood, where it is poorly 
supported. As the crop approaches maturity these long branches 
bend and break beneath a weight of fruit that could have been 
safely carried had it been placed near their bases. Summer pruning 
evades this difficulty by thinning the new growth and giving the 
parts remaining full sunshine. 



272 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



Summer pruning is an insurance against sun scald on the frame 
limbs; for the shoots that spring from the upper sides of the main 
branches not only shade them but draw into their supporting tissues 
a constant flow of sap, thus keeping them in vigorous health. 

Because the peach tends to form a densely leafy head, 
care in pruning should be exercised to keep the head fairly 
open so sun and air may have free access to the center. 
This end may be attained perhaps most easily by extend- 
ing the diameter of the head rather than increasing the 




FIG. 234— FOURTEEN-YEAR GREENSBORO SUMMER-PRUNED IMMEDIATELY 
AFTER HARVEST LAST YEAR 



height. Most growers strive to have the frame limbs 
form as nearly an angle of 90 degrees with each other as 
possible and to spread the top so that the height will be 
about half the width (Fig. 224). By proper attention to 
pruning, cultivation, feeding, spraying and especially 
borer control, peach trees may be made to continue 
profitable far beyond the usually allotted half score of 
years. The author has visited orchards 30 years old and 
older that still bear profitable crops simply because of 
adequate attention. 



PRUNING MATURE TREES 273 

One of the commonest errors in peach prunin.e^ is to 
get rid of too much interior growth. This may be either 
because of over-shacHng by growths higher up or by poor 
judgment in cutting. Nothing but careful and vigorous 
pruning in the top will maintain bearing wood in the 
lower parts of the trees; and yet care must be exercised 
to prevent having too open a top. Plenty of fruiting 
wood must be there also. While central bearing twigs 
usually are not as sturdy as exterior ones, yet the fruit 
borne there is less likely to be blown off. It may also be 
of fully as good quality on properly handled trees. 

Often an old peach orchard may be rejuvenated. Per- 
haps the best time to undertake the work is during a sea- 
son when frost has ruined the crop. The earlier the work- 
can be done in the spring the better so that plenty of 
fruit buds may be formed for the following season's crop. 
When there are young growths low down on the limbs 
and the trunk, the top may be cut back severely, the cuts 
being preferably close to points where good but smaller 
limbs are already growing well. "Dehorning" is an ex- 
aggeration of this cutting back. In it practically all the 
top is removed except a few feet of the frame and second- 
ary limbs. Figure 31 shows a tree that was so treated 
four years before the picture was taken. It bore a partial 
crop the second year after being dehorned and a good 
crop the following and the fourth years. 



CHAPTER XII 
CARE OF TOP-WORKED TREES 

205. Availability of top-working.* — "In orchard (less 
in nursery) practice unsatisfactory trees are top-worked, 
also trees of strong growth are used as bodies for poor 
straggling growers and those that have trunk weakness. 
Thus any desired variety may be worked on trees by the 
individual orchardist. The method is of practically uni- 
versal utility, because nearly every fruit grower is sure 
to have at least some trees that do not please him, but 
which are too good to destroy — seedlings, trees untrue to 
name, shy bearers, others in which graft or bud has failed 
but a sucker developed, and so on. Any desired number 
of varieties may be worked upon the same tree, the num- 
ber being restricted only by the available branches or 
stocks." 

206. Top-working finds its widest application in new 
fruit districts where the promiscuous variety growing of 
the home orchard or the speculative style of planting is 
giving place to the commercial planting of a few varie- 
ties specially adapted to the district. In other words, 
experimental planting is being replaced by business 
planting. When this period arrives there may be thou- 
sands of undesirable or, from a business standpoint, less 
desirable varieties in this district — trees too good to de- 
stroy, yet not profitable enough because their fruit is not 
in demand, is too sparsely borne or for some other reason. 
Moreover, if properly top-worked and handled they may 
be made to yield profitable crops several years before 
nursery trees would come into bearing. Sometimes top- 
worked trees produce a fairly good crop four years from 
the operation. 

* Kains Plant Propagation, Page 238. 

274 



CARE OF TOP-WORKED TREES 



275 



As top-working is based on processes of graftage, 
and as such is fully discussed in the author's book, Plant 
Propagation, Greenhouse and Nursery Practice, it need 
only be mentioned here that "Cleft grafting . . . finds 
its chief use in amateur practice to work over seedling 
and unsatisfactory trees to desired varieties. Everyone 
should know how to 
perform it, because 
there is no telling when 
it may become use- 
ful."* Usually t h c 
whole top is changed 
over to the desired va- 
riety by grafting or 
budding all of the prin- 
cipal limbs — preferably 
in their smaller 
branches if the frame 
limbs are large — so as 
to maintain or perhaps 
improve upon the origi- 
nal form of the tree. 
Better results are gen- 
erally secured in this 
way than by cutting of 
the trunk or frame 
limbs. When this lat- 
ter is done, there is 
danger of ugly and dan- 
gerous Y crotches. An- 
other advantage in us- 
ing the smaller branches (say ^ inch up to 2 inches for 
cleft grafting, and smaller than -)4 inch for most other 
methods) is that the new growths from the cions are not 
so likely to be broken by wind, ice or snow as when the 




FIG. 235— NEW GROWTH ON TOP-WORKED 
APPLE, HEADED BACK AND THINNED 
AFTER ONE SEASON'S DEVELOPMENT, 



* Ibid. Page 239. 



276 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



work is done in large stubs, which tend to produce far 
longer and usually weaker growths. Apple and pear trees 
under five years may be changed to the new variety in 
perhaps two years, half the top each year; but mature 
trees should not be worked over so fast — not faster than 

four to six years, de- 
pending on size, age 
and character of 
growth. Mature stone 
fruit trees may be top- 
worked, but though 
young trees may de- 
velop good tops, little 
if any time is gained 
because nursery trees 
of these species come so 
quickly into bearing. 

While proper setting 
of the cions is impor- 
tant, the after care of 
the trees is at least as 
necessary. Unless this 
care is given even the 
best "take" of cions 
may prove a more or 
less dismal failure in 
developing a new top. 
Usually the cions 
which "take" develop 
rather rank shoots 
which, while looking 
strong, yet if left to 
themselves may be top- 
heavy and therefore weak and easily blown out by wind 
or knocked out by snow, ice, birds or accidents. They 
should be headed in when, say, 18 inches long, so as to 
make them branch rather low down. Sometimes the 




FIG. 236 — ONE SEASON'S GROWTH ON 

TOP-WORKED APPLE 

New growth headed back after second season. 

Compare Fig. 235. 



CARE OF TOP-WORKED TREES 



277 



branches may also need to be headed back somewhat. 
The idea should be to secure stocky rather than spindling- 
growth and also a strong union of stock and cion. 

Another highly important point is to remove the water 
sprouts and suckers that almost always develop on the 
stubs and trunks of the stock trees. Some of these 
growths, however, may be left to shade the trunks if 
there is danger of sun 
scald. To make them 
serve this purpose most 
effectively, they should 
be pinched back to 
make them branch and 
thus develop more 
leaves. Except for such 
purposes they should 
be rubbed oft' as soon 
as they form. 

In the spring of the 
year following the 
grafting the grafts 
should be pruned in 
much the same way as 
young trees are han- 
dled at that time. Pref- 
erably no growths 
should be left longer 
than 18 inches, and 
when they are not of 
satisfactory length they 
should be cut back 

severely (Fig. 236) so as to make them develop better 
grow^ths the second season. Should two or more of the buds 
on the original cion grow, all but the best-placed twig 
should be cut off, to prevent crowding. Usually the 
lowest bud will make the best growth and should there- 
fore be saved. Perhaps some training may be necessary 




FIG. 237 — NEW GROWTH AT END OF 
SECOND SEASON ON TOP-WORKED 
APPLE TREE. (Shown in Fig. 236.) 



278 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 

to spread, contract, raise or lower the top (120d), Since 
top-worked trees frequently tend to contract, it will 
oftener be necessary to prune so as to spread the top. In 
such cases the graft should be cut back to branches 
pointing in the desired direction. 

Should two cions grow on the same stub, both may 
be left the first season so as to heal over the stub quickly, 
but in the spring of the second year the poorer or the one 
less favorably placed should be cut ofif close to the stub 
so as to hasten healing of this wound. When the stubs 
are larger than 2 inches in diameter, both cions may be 
allowed to grow during the second year, the removal of 
the inferior one thus being in the second instead of the 
first year following the grafting. The case will usually 
be improved if the cion to be removed is cut back rather 
severely so as to check but not entirely stop its develop- 
ment (compare Fig. 98). When removed the wound 
should be made as small as possible so as to facilitate 
healing. Never should both cions be allowed to grow 
longer than this because they will almost certainly form 
a bad Y crotch. 

Attention each year after the first should be the same 
as that given young trees, the effort being to make well- 
formed and stocky tops. The small wood may be al- 
lowed to take care of itself, for some of it may develop 
into fruit spurs. A few may need to be clipped or re- 
moved, but it is better to leave them for a few years to 
see what they will do. Even if they reach diameters of 
half an inch to an inch, the wounds left when they are 
removed will quickly heal if properly made (116, 119, 
122, 124). 



CHAPTER XIII 
BUSH FRUIT PRUNING 

207. The bramble fruits.— As already noted (56, 72) 
raspberries, blackberries and dewberries usually produce 
their fruit upon shoots of this year's development from 
buds which have lived over winter upon canes of last 
year's growth. The exceptions are those varieties, such 
as St. Regis raspberry, in which the buds instead of 
resting over winter push out into growth the same season 
as the cane grows. In all cases the canes die after they 
have finished fruiting. 

Four pruning practices are based on this method of 
growth. 1. Unnecessary shoots are removed from tbe 
crown of each plant and from between the rows. Thus 
half a dozen, or often less, canes are left in each crown, 
stool or hill. 2. The tops of the canes are pinched when 
they reach the height favored by the grower. This tends 
to develop branches low down on the canes, which are 
also made sturdy enough to stand without supports. 
3. The laterals produced on the canes are shortened, 
generally in spring before growth begins, so as to develop 
finer fruits from the reduced number and more compactly 
borne blossoms. 4. The canes that have fruited are cut 
out of the hills, preferably as soon as the fruit has been 
harvested, but usually during the winter when time is 
less at a premium. 

208. Pruning and training red raspberries. — In the 
pruning of all brambles method No. 1 is in general use. 
With the red raspberry the second is only occasionally 
used in commercial plantations, the canes being allowed 
to develop to their full size without any summer atten- 
tion. Lateral shortening (No. 3, above) is the same 
as for the other brambles, but removal of the old canes 

279 



280 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



(No. 4) is generally done in the winter (Figs. 238, 239). 
When summer pruning is done, the tips of the young canes 
are pinched when they reach a height of 18 to 24 inches. 
An important objection to shortening the red raspberry 
is that while it develops desirable lateral growth it also 
encourages the development of undesirable suckers and 
often unnecessary canes in the stools. The number ac- 
tually produced will vary more or less with the variety, 
the character of the soil, the amount of available plant 
food and other factors. The advantages gained by sum- 
mer pruning are to increase the bearing wood, and to 
secure low canes which need no supports. 




FIG. 238— RED RASPBERRY CANES BEFORE PRUNING 
Note the continuous row as compared with hills in Figs. 240, 242. 

Craig* found that with 16 varieties of raspberries the plants 
whose tips were pinched back twice yielded only about two-thirds 
as much as vines left unpruned. 

As the result of a five-year test at the Wisconsin Experiment 
Station! F. Cranefield writes : The facts lead to the conclusion 
that pinching the growing shoots of black raspberries, to cause 
branching, gives rise to a slightly increased production of fruit, 
while the Cuthbert was decidedly injured by this practice. The 

* Garden and Forest 10, Pages 3-4. 
t Annual Reports 1899 to 1903 inclusive. 



BUSH FRIIT PRUNING 



281 



gain In the case of Gregg is so slight, however, as to be more than 
offset by the cost of pinching and the increased labor involved in 
the winter protection of the plants. As a general conclusion drawn 
from this very thorough trial covering five years, it may be stated 
that pinching is not a prol'ital)le practice. 

209. Pruning and training black raspberries. — Summer 
pinching- (No. 2, above) is a very popular practice among 
black raspberry growers, mainly because this plant does 
not produce suckers. The work is done at frequent in- 
tervals during the growing season — whenever the young 




FIG. 239— RED RASPBERRY CANES AFTER PRUNING 
Same as Fig. 238 after thinning out and cutting back. 

canes reach a height of 18 to 24 inches. If done then, 
the thumb and forefinger, in a small way, will do the 
v.-ork effectively because the tops will be succulent. If 
the canes are allowed to grow taller so that several inches 
of wood must be cut with a knife or a pair of shears, the 
result will be far less satisfactory because the canes will 
not branch so low down and will not be nearly so self- 
supporting. Moreover, there will be a smaller number 
of laterals, a smaller quantity of fruit, and that usually of 
poorer quality, than on canes pinched at the proper height 
and time. (Note Craneficld's conclusions, 208.) 

Proper summer pinching, therefore, predetermines both 
the quality and the quantity of fruit to be borne the fol- 



282 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



lowing season. In fact, it is the most important single 
factor in the growing of first-grade black cap raspberries. 
Wires, stakes and other supports are rarely used in com- 
mercial raspberry plantations because the canes may be 
made to support themselves. When pinched low (18 to 
24 inches), they will do this far better than if pinched 
high (30 to 36 inches), for the stems are not only more 
stocky, but the laterals are also. High canes frequently 
bend over to the ground and often break from the weight 
of fruit. Frequently also the fruit becomes soiled. 

Generally, in commercial plantations, the fruited canes 
are removed in the winter, at which time also the laterals 
are shortened to 8 to 12 inches, depending somewhat on 




FIG. 240— BRAMBLE CANES IN POSITION FOR COVERING WITH EARTH 
FOR THE WINTER 

the grower's ideal, but more by the positions of the fruit 
buds upon them. In some varieties those buds are borne 
rather far from the main canes ; in others closer. Nothing 
will take the place of personal observation of the behavior 
of the variety in hand. 

210. Pruning and training blackberries. — What has 
been said above concerning the suckering of red rasp- 
berries and the pinching of black cap raspberries applies 
more or less strikingly to the blackberry. But since this 
fruit is often trained in other ways it may be well to 
condense and quote what G. M. Darrow* has to say and 
to show the various forms of training he illustrates. What 
he writes will apply with more or less force to the man- 

* Farmers' Bulletin 643, Pages 5 to 7. 



BUSH FRUIT PRUNING 



283 



agement of other bramble fruits, especially red rasp- 
berries, which have the similar habit of throwing up 
suckers. 

If all of the suckers are allowed to grow, by the end 
of the second year the field will be a dense thicket of 
canes, from which the berries can be picked only with 
great difficulty. The suckers will compete with the 
parent plants for food, moisture 
and light, and the whole plan- 
tation will be inferior. The 
plants must therefore be kept 
in rows or hills, and all suckers 
which appear between the rows 
must be destroyed by frequent 
cultivation. Suckers do not re- 
appear as rapidly if pulled as 
if cut, but this method requires 
much hand labor. If all are de- 
stroyed, the plants will have 
much stronger roots and canes, 
and the berries will be larger 
and better. 

As soon as the last berries 
have been picked, the canes 
which have just borne fruit 
should be cut out and burned. 
This allows the young canes 
more room in which to develop, 
and destroys any insects or dis- 
eases on the old canes. It will 
rarely be necessary to leave 
them to support the new canes 
during the winter snows. Wire 
trellises are usually to be pre- 
ferred where support is needed. 
Not more than four new canes 
to each plant should be al- 




RED 



FIG. 241 
RASPBERRY CANE IM- 
PROPERLY PRUNED 
This cane was clipped not 
pinched during midsummer when 
nearly full grown. Lateral branches 
developed later as shown near the 
top. The cane is 30 inches long 
up to the point cut. It should 
have been pinched at 18 to 24 
inches. Such canes as this are 
often borne to the ground by the 
weight of fruit because of their 
weakness and top-heaviness, where- 
as short, pinched canes stand up. 
The laterals, which winterkilled 
badly because produced late in the 
season, have been cut back to 
permit clear photographing. 



284 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



lowed to grow in one season, all in excess of this num- 
ber should be cut out not later than the time of the re- 
moval of the old bearing canes. The remaining canes 
will be larger and stronger because of the thinning. 

The systems of training vary in accordance with con- 
ditions in various sections of the country. In some sec- 
tions where the plants do not grow large and where the 
soil does not wash, the new canes may be pinched off 
with the fingers — when they reach a height of not more 
than 23^ feet. When the bushes are very vigorous, the 
height may be increased to 3 feet. As the canes do not 
all reach the height of 2]^ feet at the same time, the 




FIG. 242— BLACK RASPBERRY BEFORE PRUNING 
The pruning hook shows the relative height before and (Fig. 243) after. 

plantation must be gone over several times at frequent 
intervals. The pinching causes the canes to branch 
[comparatively low] and to be better able to stand erect 
with a heavy crop of berries. 

Even when this method of training is used, the canes 
may be bent over and broken either by tillage imple- 
ments or by the pickers, the number of canes and the 
quantity of fruit being thus materially reduced. Under 



BUSH FRUIT PRUNING 



285 



such conditions a wire trellis will save sufficient fruit to 
make it a profitable investment. Such a trellis consists of 
posts set in each row at intervals of 15 to 30 feet; the 
canes are tied to a wire stretched along this line about 
23^ feet above ground. This keeps the canes upright 
and facilitates cultivation and picking. (Figure 248 shows 
this and other popular forms of trellises. See also Fig. 247.) 
Another satisfactory form of trellis is made as follows : 
Crosspieces about 18 inches long are nailed to the top 
of each post and two wires instead of one are stretched 
from the ends of the crosspieces. The blackberry canes 




FIG. 243— BLACK RASPBERRY AFTER PRUNING. COMPARE WITH FIG. 242. 

are kept inside these wires, which support them on 
either side. 

These systems of training are adapted to certain varie- 
ties and to those sections of the country where the bushes 
do not grow very high. When the canes grow very long 
or are inclined to run somewhat like a grapevine, a much 
higher trelHs is used, with two wires (Figs. 2il b, 248-1), 
one about 3 feet, the other about 5 feet from the ground 
the height depending upon the vigor of the plants (Fig. 
244). The canes of the erect varieties are fastened to 



286 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



the wires, while those of the trailing varieties are tied 
either horizontally along the wires or in fan-shape 
(Fig. 247 0- 

A variation of this trellis (Figs. 247 c^, 248-2) is used in 
some sections where the trailing varieties are grown. Two 
cross-pieces 18 or 20 inches long are nailed to each post, one 
near the top and the second about 2 feet below. Wires 
are strung along the ends of the crosspieces. Sometimes 
both bearing and nonbearing canes are trained to the 
same wires, frequently the nonbearing canes on the lower 




:^^^xi: 



.elk 



FIG. 244— LOGANBERRY PLANTS WITH FRUITING CANES SUPPORTED ON 
WIRE TRELLIS 

wires and the bearing canes on the upper wires and some- 
times vice versa. 

These systems are the most popular ones; they are 
often varied to suit particular conditions or the con- 
venience of the grower. When the plants are set in hills 
5 or more feet apart each way, the canes may be pinched 
back at about 3 feet to make a stocky growth. Fre- 
quently, when the plants are set in hills, a post is set by 
each plant and the canes tied to it (Fig. 248-5). The trail- 



BUSH FRUIT PRUNING 



287 



ing varieties, with the exception of the Mammoth, arc 
rarely trained to the hill system. 

211. Currants are sometimes pruned and trained in 
tree and pillar forms, but these are too fussy for business 
purposes. The method adopted for them is much the 
same as that employed to make the heads of trees such 
as peach and cherry. All buds on the lower part of the 




FIG. 245— BLACKBERRY CANES BEFORE PRUNING 

cutting are removed and four to eight frame limbs al- 
lowed to develop. These are shortened to 4 to 6, or at 
most. 8 inches and two to four main laterals allowed to 
each frame limb. After the framework and the first 
laterals have thus formed the head, two to four shoots 
are allowed to grow for the making of fruiting spurs, 
being cut back to one to three buds early in the spring 
after their formation. From time to time wood that has 
fruited twice or thrice or perhaps oftener is cut out and 
new growths encouraged. 

Apart from the labor involved in this method of train- 
ing, there are the serious objections that the "trees" are 



288 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



less productive than the bushes and much more likely to 
be killed by borers ; for when the tree is so attacked its 
one stem is destroyed, whereas when a stem in a bush be- 
comes infested it may be cut out and burned and the other 
stems allowed to continue to live and bear fruit. 

The bush form is the popular one, both with people who 
neglect their plants and those who grow currants for 
profit (Figs. 250, 251). No matter how badly neglected, 
some fruit may be expected. Pruning, combined with other 
rational treatment, will make the plants bear fine fruit 
abundantly. The flower buds are borne mainly on twigs 




FIG. 246— BLACKBERRY CANES AFTER PRUNING 
Same as Fig. 245 after thinning out and cutting back. 

of last year's growth and on short annual spurs on wood 
two or more seasons old. Usually the finest fruit is borne 
on the young wood, but it is unwise to dispense entirely 
with older wood. The best practice keeps a constant 
succession of new canes coming up to replace the old ones. 
Commercial growers favor six to 12 canes to the bush, 
two or three new ones being allowed to develop each 
year, the oldest ones being cut out after having produced 
two or usually not more than three crops. 



BUSH FRUIT TRUNING 



289 



Many more canes arc likely to spring from the base of 
the bush, but all but the two or three best should be cut 
out, preferably after fruiting, at which time also the old 
canes may be cut out and immediately burned to get rid 
of any insects and diseases that may be present. Unnec- 
essary and lusty shoots on the main canes may be cut 
back to one or two buds in the early summer in which 
they develop. Thus they will form fruiting spurs which 
may fruit the following season. Upon these will be borne 




FIG. 247— STYLES OF BRAMBLE CANE SUPPORTS 
a. Considered best for vine-producing kinds, b. Used for extra long canes, 
in this case 12-foot canes, c. Good for windy places, d, Good framework for sup- 
porting red raspberries. 

much of the best fruit. Beyond such pruning as just 
outlined little else need be done, though thinning out the 
old wood and the young growths in spring may be nec- 
essary when the bushes become too thick. 

212. The gooseberry, if neglected, as it often is, be- 
comes one of the most unsatisfactory of fruit plants to 
deal with. Under such treatment it produces far too 



290 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



much wood and far too little and too small fruit. The 
fruit deteriorates in size and quality and harvesting becomes 
a difficult and painful operation. To handle the plants 
properly the amount of wood must be vigorously con- 

trolled or the fruit 
^^"^ — ^' — ^^— ~T^>^<=^^-~=— 4^ will be inferior. 

Just how this is 
done is of minor 
consequence to 
the actual doing 
of it. 

Since fruit is 
borne on wood of 
all ages except the 
present season's 
and the oldest, 
wide latitude may 
be allowed for 
pruning; yet the 
best fruit is pro- 
duced on last 
year's wood. Two- 
year and three- 
year wood also 
bears good fruit, 
but older than 
this shows deteri- 
oration. Hence 
commercial grow- 
ers usually allow 

POPULAR STYLES OF BLACKBERRY TRAINING ^^^ tnOVe than 

1, Canes of trailing type on two-wire trellis. 2, Four- three CropS tO be 

wire trellis for trailing vines. 3, Upright canes on two -u^-^. ^„ ^-r,_ ^onpc 

wires. 4, Canes of upright type on single wire. 5, Post- uui lie uil Liic (_ciiics, 

method used for upright canes. which are S'Cn- 

erally cut out and burned immediately after harvest. Two 
or three shoots are allowed to develop annually from the 
base of the bush to replace the wood cut out, all weak 




BUSH IMUIT PRUNING 



291 



or otherwise inferior shoots from that point being cut out, 
and lush shoots on other parts of the plants shortened to 
two or three buds, so the bush may be kept well within 
bounds and fruit spurs be developed from them. 

The principle involved is to have an annual renewal 
of bearing wood in sufficient amount to give good crops. 
In cool climates 
and situations, such 
as partially shaded 
gardens and be- 
neath grapevines 
trained on Munson 
and Caywood trel- 
lises (Figs. 271, 278) 
the bushes may 
be given open 
heads, but in warm 
situations the heads 
should be more 
dense. 

Sometimes the 
gooseberry is 
trained in tree form 
with six or eight to 
ten or a dozen 
frame limbs, the 
lowest of which 
may be a foot or 18 
inches from the 
ground. These are 
headed back to 6 or 
8 inches and al- 
lowed to develop 
one to three or four side shoots, which in turn are also 
shortened. The method is too fussy for commercial prac- 
tice in America. In England, where the fruit is to be 
exhibited in the gooseberry contests, the tree form and 




FIG. 249 
BLACKBERRY CANE AND MAIN BRANCH 
This cane was cut in July or August at about 
30 inches from the ground. It sent out laterals 
which winterkilled somewhat. Canes so treated 
rarely do as well as normal or as pinched ones. 
Note the prominent buds. 



292 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 







FIG. 250— UNPRUNED CURRANT PLANTED ONE YEAR 




FIG. 251— ONE-YEAR PLANTED CURRANT, PRUNED. SAME AS FIG. 250 
Gooseberries and currants are pruned very much alike. 



BUSH FRUIT PRUNING 



293 



the thinning- of the fruits are two of the ways which aid 
in developing the plum-like gooseberries of which tho 
American markets know nothing. So far as thinning in 
American plantations is concerned, it is all done by re- 
moving more or less wood at pruning time. It is im- 
portant and it pays, but it is not productive of such spec- 
tacular fruits as the British methods yield. 

Some of the gooseberry "trees" of England are remark- 
able for their size, age and productivity. One reported 




FIG. 252— GOOSEBERRY BEFORE PRUNING. PLANTED THREE YEARS 

to the London Horticultural Society* measured 36 feet 
in circumference and when 46 years old had a 30-year 
record of several pecks of fruit each year. It is doubtful 
if such results could be even approached in many parts of 
America, because the climate is not humid enough and 
our people are too busy to take the trouble to do the nec- 
essary pruning and training. 

* Transactions Vol. 5, Page 490. 



CHAPTER XIV 



GRAPE PRUNING AND TRAINING 



213. Principles of grape pruning. — In addition to the 
general principles that apply to all plants discussed in 
Chapter V are several that apply especially, or even per- 
haps exclusively, to the grape. 

a. Since the youngest growing parts, including the 
leaves, derive all their food from other parts, they act as 
parasites (Chapter III, 90). When mature they deliver 
food to the balance of the plant. Hence whatever de- 




ne. 253— GOOSEBERRY AFTER PRUNING. SAME AS FIG. 252, BUT PRUNED 

velops superfluous growth or impairs mature active leaf 
functions, as in the case of insect or disease attack or 
injudicious pruning, proportionately inhibits fruit pro- 
duction possibilities, and if excessive may starve the vine, 
b. The tendency for a vine or a vine part to be fruitful 
is in inverse proportion to vegetative activity. Hence, 
practices which augment such activity tend to reduce 

294 



GRAPE PRUNING AND TRAINING 



295 



f uitfulncss, and vice versa. Disregard of this principle 
may result either in over-bearing and premature exhaus- 
tion or in inferior yields, even practical sterility. Correct 
management invigorates the vine to the iiighest possible 
degree without reducing the crop. 

c. Excessive foliage and small yield usually go hand 
in hand; and, conversely, excessive fruit and reduced 
foliage are partners. 

d. Injuring the tissues — bending, twisting, etc. — tends 




FIG. 254— VINES GROWING IN VINEYARD THE FIRST YEAR 

Shoots are tied to stakes to keep them off the ground and thus protect them from 

whipping by the wind and from cultivating tools. 

to reduce vegetative vigor and, except when excessive, 
to increase productivity (103). 

e. Terminal buds and shoots farthest from the main 
head usually develop most actively. Hence, to prevent 
this and to keep the vines within bounds, such buds and 
growths must be removed or methods adopted to check 
the sap flow so buds and shoots nearer the head will de- 
velop well. Various methods of pruning and training 
are faulty because they disregard this principle. They 
cannot be followed indefinitely. The vertical tying of 
fruiting canes to stakes is one of the most common of 
these faulty methods. 

f. The more nearlv vertical a shoot the more will be 



296 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



its vigor. The Hudson system typifies this principle 
(239). 

g. Other conditions being equal, the sizes of vines or 
vine parts are inversely as their number. Hence the larger 
the number of shoots, or clusters, or of berries in a 
cluster, the smaller they will average ; and the larger the 
number of vines to the acre the smaller the individual 
vines. 

214. Pruning units. — In California the term "pruning 
unit" is applied to the treatment of single arms, whether 

the method of training be 
spur or cane pruning. The 
term, though less used in 
other parts of the country, 
is just as applicable un- 
der similar circumstances. 
Vines which have reached 
maturity are pruned so 
that certain parts are left 
for fruit production, others 
for renewal and others for 
replacing, extension or 
shortening the arms. All 
other wood is cut off. No 
matter what the system of 
training or pruning the 
fundamental principles and 
the rules which govern the 
system are applied to each 
arm of every vine so trained, except that vigor of vine, 
arm or cane may modify the application somewhat. 
Biolitti presents two diagrams (Figs. 257, 258),* which 
illustrate units of short and long pruning. His descrip- 
tion is slightly condensed as follows : 

The unit in spur pruning illustrated in Fig. 257, represents a long 
arm about seven years old. At the end of the arm is the two-eye 

♦California Bulletin 241. 




FIG. 255 — GRAPEVINE SHOWING 
METHOD OF PRUNING ROOTS 
READY FOR PLANTING. 



GRAPE PRUNING AND TRAINING 



297 



spur (a) of the previous year bearing two canes (b and c). 
Near the base of the arm is a single water sprout (d) growing 
out of old wood. Such an arm would normally bear other canes, 
but as they would all be removed entirely at pruning they are 
omitted to simplify the figure. 

In pruning one of the canes growing out of the spur of the 
previous year (a) is cut back to form a new spur and the other 
removed entirely. In deciding on which cane to use for the new 
spur, we must choose the one suitable for fruiting ; viz, well ripened, 
of moderate thickness and 
with well-formed buds. Of 
those which fulfill this con- 
dition, we must choose that 
which is in the best position 
to preserve the form of the 
vine. This, in most cases, 
will be the lowest (& in the 
figure), because it increases 
the length of the arm the 
least. If the lowest, how- 
ever, is weak, broken or 
otherwise unsuitable, we 
are obliged to take one 
higher up. 

When a cane arising 
from the base bud of the 
spur of the previous year is 
chosen for the new spur, 
the length of the arm is 
lengthened imperceptibly. A 
spur from the first bud (b) 
will lengthen it usually 
a little over an inch, one 
from the second bud (b) 
3 or 4 inches. In any case, 
the arm finally becomes too 
long, like the one in the 
figure, so must be short- 
ened or replaced. This may 
be done by using a con- 
veniently placed water 
sprout for a replacing spur 
as at e in the figure, and 
cutting back the arm in the 
place indicated by the line /. Cutting back of an arm should be 
deferred until the following year as the replacing spur will produce 
little or no fruit. In the meanwhile the fruit spur from cane b will 
bear a crop and the replacing spur e will produce fruit wood for the 
following year. 




FIG. 256 — ROTUNDIFOLIA (MUSCADINE) 
Above, as dug; below, pruned for planting. 



298 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



The cane chosen (b) is cut at 1, 2, or 3, leaving a fruit spur of 
one, two or three fruit buds and the cane. C is removed entirely 
by a cut at g. The more vigorous the variety and the particular 
cane, the more buds should be left. The water sprout c is cut back 
at 1, leaving a replacing spur of one eye. Of course a replacing 
spur is left only in case the arm is too long and will require shorten- 
ing the next year. The unit in short pruning consists then of a 
single fruit spur of one, two or three fruit buds. 

The unit of pruning in long and half long systems shownin Fig. 258 
consists of a fruit cane, a, with its renewal spur, d. In the illus- 
tration, a represents the renewal spur of two years previous. On 
it was left a fruit cane, a, which has produced the crop of the 
previous season and a renewal spur, d, which has produced fruit 
wood for the present season. 




FIG. 257 —UNIT OF SHORT PRUNING 



In pruning, the fruit cane, a, is removed entirely at /. The 
upper cane, g, of the renewal spur, d, is used for a new fruit cane 
and shortened to about 1 for half long and to about 2 for long 
pruning. The lower cane, f, is cut back at 1 to form a renewal 
spur, which will produce the new wood for the next winter 
pruning. 

This is the normal method of procedure, but various modifications 
are often necessary. If the cane g is unsuitable on account of lack 
of vigor, other canes such as /, or even /;, i, near the base of the 
old fruit cane, may be used for a new fruit cane. The essential 
point is that the cane used for this purpose shall originate from 
tzvo-year-old wood. In the same way, any suitably placed cane may 
be used for a renewal spur. Water sprouts from three-year, four- 
year or older wood being available (c). The essential point in 



GRATE PRUNING AND TRAINING 



299 



this case is that the renewal spur shall be below the fruit cane, that 
is, nearer the trunk. 

Replacing spurs for shortening the arms are occasionally needed 
as in spur pruning, but usually the same spur may be used both for 
renewal and replacing. The water sprouts, c, may be used for this 
purjiose, cutting it at 1 or 2, according to its vigor. 

215. Time to prune vines. — The most extensive and im- 
portant pruning is done during the dormant season. 
Vigor and fruitfulncss are often profoundly influenced by 
the time the work is done, so are the quantity and the 
location of the reserve plant food in the vines. J. L. 
Vidal, a French investigator, has studied tninutely the 
nutrition of the European grapevine.* Among his find- 
ings the following are of special interest at this point. 
In summer the leaves feed the various other parts (29) 




FIG. 258 -UNIT OF LONG PRUNING OF GRAPEVINE 



Just before the leaves normally drop the canes are richest 
in plant food. Immediately after the leaves drop and 
during the following two to five weeks, this food is carried 
to the roots, where it is held in storage. Part of this as- 
cends again gradually during the dormant period to 
supply the needs of the parts above ground ; for even 
though dormant these parts must be nurtured. When 
spring opens the ascent of this food is often extremely 

* "Les Reserves de la Vigue." Revue de Viticulture 1, Pages 895 to 903. 



300 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



rapid. It continues until the new growth can elaborate 
more food than is needed for its maintenance. 

Hence if vines are pruned immediately after the leaves 
drop the cuttings are in best possible condition for prop- 
agation. A month later they will not be so good for 
such purposes, but the largest proportion of food will have 
been saved in the roots to develop the new spring growth. 
If pruning is delayed until spring, large quantities of the 
reserve food will be lost in the prunings. Therefore, 
vines pruned then will develop poorer shoots, but a 
better set of fruit. 

Vidal also concludes* from three years' experiments that, other 
conditions being equal, the time of pruning modifies only sHghtly 

,, the number of 

'.y^ bunches borne. 

With extremely 
late pruning the 
bunches are more 
vigorous and the 
proportion of im- 
perfect bunches 
and aborted flow- 
ers is less. The 
individual ber- 
ries are larger, 
heavier and more 
numerous. The 
growth is more 
rapid for late 
pruned vines and 
continues for a 
longer time. The 
vegetation is at 
times diminished 
and at times in- 
creased by spring 
pruning just as in 
winter pruning. 
These positive or 
negative variations in vegetation progress or retrogress in more or 
less regular order with the progression of the time of pruning. The 
prunings were made at intervals between January 1 to about April 
15. With vines pruned after mid-February, the later the pruning 






FIG. 259— VINES HEADED BACK FOR VARIOUS SYS- 
TEMS OF PRUNING 
A, The spur and the fan systems; B, the four-arm re- 
newal system; C, the two-arm Kniffin, Munson, um- 
brella and overhead systems. 



* Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci. No. 17, Page 1,192. 



GRAPE PRUNING AND TRAINING 



301 



the greater the retarding effect on bud swelHng and the flowering 
season. 

In a progress report on experiments in pruning grapes at various 
times of year, L. Ravaz* concludes that pruning after the terminal 
shoots have started serves as a partial protection against spring frosts 
and increases production without materially affecting the vigor of 
the vine. The chief value of this late pruning appears to be due 
to the removal of the outlying buds which are the first to open in 
the spring. 




FIG. 260— PRUNED AND UNPRUNED VINE AT VARIOUS STAGES OF THE 

RENEWAL SYSTEM 

A, Second year; B, third; C, fourth; D, unpruned vine in its fourth year. 

He questions whether the bleeding caused by pruning after the 
shoots have started is harmful. (Compare 15.) To avoid this, 
however, and still prevent the vines from starting too early in the 
spring, all unnecessary growth may be removed during the dormant 
period, the fruiting shoots shortened somewhat, and all eyes re- 
moved except the two nearest the base. Since the basal eyes are 
affected by the length of the shoot rather than by the nutnber of eyes 
beyond them, they will not start any earlier in the spring for having 
the remaining eyes removed. He found also that sulphate of iron, 
which has been suggested as a dressing to prevent bleeding, has a 
tendency to increase the sensibility of the tissues to cold. 

* Taille Hative au Taille Tardive, Montpelier, 1912, Page 15. 



302 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



The experiments have been conducted in a vineyard planted in 
1905. Prunings were as follows : one row, immediately after vin- 
tage ; another at the time of full leaf ; during the dormant period ; at 
the time the eyes first appeared; during the budding period; and 
when the terminal shoots were about 2 inches long. The shoots in 
all cases were cut back to two eyes. 

His conclusions drawn from his seven years of experiment* are 
that vines pruned promptly after leaf fall were the first to start 
growth the following spring; vines pruned when most dormant (late 
December and early January) started four days later; those pruned 
when bleeding may be expected (in southern France about Febru- 
ary 20) resumed growth six days later; those pruned when the 
terminal buds began to swell in March were eleven days later, and 
those cut when the terminal growths were 2 or 3 inches long were 
20 days late. Hence growth started according to the lateness of 
the pruning. The only exception was with vines fall pruned soon 
after harvest while the leaves were still green. These pushed into 
growth 10 days later than the vines pruned immediately after the 
fall leaves dropped. 

One practical application of this knowledge may be 
the retardation of shoots and blossoms in early spring 
long enough to escape late frosts. Experiments in Cali- 
fornia have proved the utility of this ; several vines 
pruned about the middle of March w^ere saved, while those 
pruned in late fall and early winter were killed by a late 
April frost. March pruning in California may delay 
blooming ten days. Season of ripening is slightly de- 
layed, but when frosts occur the early- 
pruned vines may bloom early but 
mature their fruit late, because the ear- 
liest shoots may be destroyed and only 
such flowers and fruit as are on tardy 
buds escape the injury. 

216. How much to prune. — A vig- 
orous vine may carry 20 to 30 canes 
each bearing a dozen to a score of buds, 
a total of perhaps 250 to 300 or more. 
Probably not more than 50 or 75 of 
these buds will produce shoots, the 




FIG. 261 

UMBRELLA TRELLIS 

Post 4 feet above 

ground. 



* Taille Hative an Taille Tardive, 1912. 



GRAPE PRUNING AND TRAINING 



303 



Others remaining- latent (55). If the vine is pruned so 
as to leave only 50 to 75 buds therefore, the result will 
probably be the same number of shoots, though doubt- 
less from a somewhat different set of buds, because the 
buds near the bases of the shoots rather than those nearer 
the terminals will grow (55). Neither the quantity nor 
the quality of the crop nor the vigor of the vine or its 
shoots will show any conspicuous difference. 

Should the vine be pruned more severely, leaving only 
25 or 30 buds, the number of shoots will, of course, be 
smaller. Hence the supply of stored food in root, trunk 
and branches and the supply of crude sap from the un- 
pruned roots will be distributed in larger quantities to the 
shoots, which will thus grow more vigorously than they 
w^ould were there more of them. This smaller number 
of large shoots will produce fully as great an area of leaf 
surface as would the greater number of smaller shoots 
on the unpruned vine, so the vigor of the vine will in no 
way be impaired by the reduction in number. Similarly, 
a smaller number, but larger-sized bunches and berries, 
will be produced by the smaller number of large shoots ; 
so the total weight of the crop will be at least as great as 
when the greater number of clusters and berries are 
borne on the smaller but more numerous shoots. Indeed, 
experience proves that size of both berry and cluster is 
larger and weight of crop greater on pruned than on un- 




^-!^'J^5^«^-3^Z^'^i5«i'9s:^^;'-i^^ 



FIG. 262— FAN SYSTEM, VINE AT VARIOUS AGES 

A, Unpruned vine in third year; B, pruned vine in fourth year; C, unpruned vine 

in fourth year. 



304 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



pruned vines. This is because it is easier for the pruned 
vine to supply the sugar and water, the principal con- 
stituents of the large berries, than to produce the stems, 
skins and seeds which make up the principal part of the 
small fruit clusters on the unpruned vines. 

There is, of course, a limit beyond which such results 
begin to diminish. This is due to one or both of two 
causes; namely, the maximum sizes for berries and 
clusters and the undue development of vegetative func- 
tions which often cause the blossoms to drop without 
setting fruit. The aim should be therefore to leave the 
optimum number of buds for the production of fruit. The 

number will vary with 
the age and individu- 
ality of the vine, the va- 
riet3^ the method of 
training and m any 
other factors. Nothing 
will take the place of 
experience in this mat- 
ter. However, it may 
be said that with vines 
four to, say, ten years 
old in commercial vine- 
yards, the number may 
range in a general way between 20 and 40 buds. 

In general, light winter pruning increases the yield, 
whereas heavy winter pruning makes for vigor of vine 
and reduction of yield. Hence, it is a safe rule to leave 
as many fruit spurs and fruit buds on mature vines of 
normal vigor for the variety as were left the previous 
year; to leave fewer on weak vines, which should be 
pruned more severely; and larger numbers on vines of 
unusually great vigor. Attempts to make weak vines 
produce normal crops tend to augment weakness and to 
produce inferior fruit ; but by pruning to secure small 
yield, the quality will be maintained while the vine is 




FIG 



263 — WIRE HOOK FOR 
VINE TO TRELLIS 



HOLDING 



I 



■I 



GRArE PRUNING AND TRAINING 



305 



being- strengthened for subsequent production. Indi- 
vidual parts of vines act in the same way as the whole 
vines ; i. c., pruning of canes and arms should be governed 
by the same principles as govern the pruning of one vine 
as compared with another. One way to judge the vigor of 
a cane is by weight ; heavy and firm ones arc better than 
soft, pithy and light ones. 

217. Herbaceous or summer pruning consists in the 
cutting of green parts. It differs in its effects from winter 
pruning (83) in 
being in general a 
weakening process. 
The maximum of 
weakening seems to 
result when the cut- 
ting is done during 
midsummer while 
the vine most needs 
its elaborated food 
and when it is most 
active. Insects and 
diseases may pro- 
duce the same re- 
sults. In the spring 
the effects of her- 
baceous pruning are 
not so serious be- 
cause the vines have 
a chance to develop 
enough leaf surface 
to ecjualize the loss. This is well shown by vines in- 
jured in the spring by late frosts ; the following year such 
vines are often more vigorous than before because lack 
of crop gives them a chance to recuperate. 

Herbaceous pruning often resembles winter pruning 
in that it concentrates growth in the remaining parts. 
This effect and that mentioned above are more or less 




FIG. 264— POST AND STAKE METHODS OF 
GRAPE TRAINING 
Left, rotundifolia (muscadine) grapevine 
trained to a post with crossed wires at the top. 
Right, vine trained to a stake. Often no wire is 
used in stake-training methods. 



306 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



balanced against each other in inverse ratio, depending 
upon the method employed and the time when applied. 
In spring the concentrating effect is greatest, the weaken- 
ing least ; in early summer the two may balance; later the 
concentrating may be inferior to the weakening. 

217a. Summer pruning practices. — The principal uses 
of summer pruning are, 1, to develop useful vine parts by 
removing water sprouts, suckers, unnecessary buds, 
shoots and tips of vines ; 2, to reduce vine vigor and in- 
crease fruitfulness by pinching and removing vine tops; 
3, to enlarge the berries by topping — this reduces the 

n 




FIG. 265— HEAD PRUNING: FAN-SHAPED HEAD, FRUIT CANES TIED TO 
HORIZONTAL TRELLIS 

sweetness ; 4, to increase shade on the fruit by pinching 
or topping to develop laterals and to make shoots grow 
upright ; 5, to decrease shade by defoliating. Fruit thin- 
ning, ringing and pruning away of surface and cion roots 
are also done during the growing season. 

Disbudding, which is practiced on vines during the 
second and third years, consists in removing the buds on 
the lower part of the stem when they have developed 
shoots an inch long so the upper roots may become 
strong. Thinning shoots is for the same purpose, but is 
done when the buds have developed shoots several inches 
long. Disbudding is superior to it because of less weakening 
to the vine. Topping is the removal of the end of a shoot 



GRAPE PRLTNING AND TRAINING 



307 



when about a foot longer than desired. It is most prac- 
ticed when the disbudded or shoot-thinned canes have 
grown excessively long because of the concentration of 
food in them. Development of laterals is its chief effect. 
These may be used to form fruit spurs the following sea- 
son. It is usually done about midsummer ; sometimes twice 
or thrice. Siickcring is the removal of shoots that appear 
from or near the ground surface. It is most necessary with 
grafted vines.. Water sprouting is the removal of sterile 
shoots where not needed. Pinching is the removal of the 
growing tip with finger and thumb. It tends to increase 
the size of the leaves below. Usually it is done when 
the shoots are 15 to 18 inches long. Thus the shoots 
have ample time in which to mature. Defoliating is the re- 



£>,^ 




FIG. 266— DIAGRAM OF ORDINARY TRELLIS 
Note braces A, B, C and devices D used for tightening the wires. 

moval of leaves to expose the fruit better to the sun so as to 
increase color. It may be largely superseded by an im- 
proved form of the vine. 

L. Ravaz* sumiTiarizes the results of investigations in heading 
in grapes by declaring that if employed shortly after the flowering 
season production is increased, but at the expense of quality. 

218. Pinching grapevines.f— Experiments by G. Riviere to de- 
termine the effect of pinching the flowering shoots of grapevines 
just before flowering to "no leaves and to 1, 2, 3 and 4 leaves re- 
spectively beyond the second bunch of grapes, showed upon analysis 
more or less chemical difference in the composition of the must 
according to the number of leaves left. The sugar content de- 
creased approximately in proportion to whether 4. 3, 2, 1 or no 
leaves were left on the shoot beyond the bunches — 145.8 gm. where 
4 and 70 where none. On the other hand, the acid content increased 
from 36.3 gm. where 4 leaves were left to 60.5 where none. With 
the variety studied (Chasselas Dore) it seems advisable where 

♦Ann Ecole Nat. Agr. Montpelier N. Ser. II, (1912), No. 4, Page 285-323 t pi. 
t See. Nat. Hort. France, 1907. 



308 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



pinching is employed to leave at least 4 leaves beyond the last 
bunch of grapes." 

Later experiments in grape-shoot pinching by Riviere show 
that the sugar content increased from 159 gm. per litre of must 
where no leaves were left beyond the bunches to 205 gm. where 
5 leaves were left. No further increase was obtained where 6 or 7 
leaves were left. Similar results were found for the acid content, 
which decreased from an amount corresponding to 3.95 gm. sul- 
phuric acid per litre where no leaves were left to 3.65 gm. where 
5 leaves were left. As a result of the work it is recommended that 
in pinching back the bearing shoots 5 leaves should be left beyond 
the second bunch. 

219. Wounds, their effects and treatment. — Barring frosts, drouths, 
diseases, insects and accidents, properly managed vineyards may 
continue productive perhaps indefinitely. The most frequent proxi- 




FIG. 267— RECURVING THE CANES AS IN THE FAN SYSTEM USUALLY TENDS 
TO PROMOTE FRUITFULNESS 
In this system the trunk may be trained as a permanent single stem which 
reaches to the first wire; or in regions where laying down is necessary the renewal 
canes may be started from a short stalk near the ground. Some fruit will be pro- 
duced on the short arms during the third season. However, with the average young 
vine the wood should be headed back pretty severely so as not to permit over-bearing. 

mate cause of decline is the cumulative effect of little injuries, such 
as pruning wounds, which permit the entrance of disease, decay and 
insects as well as interfere with the physiological functions of the 
plant. Hence the smaller the wounds the better, especially on the 
main trunk and the arms. By proper planning, large wounds may 
be avoided more or less completely. Antiseptics and wound dress- 
ings inay be used as in the treatment of tree fruit wounds (Chap- 
ter VIII). 

L. Petri*, an Italian investigator, found that two fungi were al- 
ways present in the brown streaks which follow pruning of grape- 
vines; mainly, Cephalosporium and acremonium. He believes the 

* Staz. Sper. Agr. Ital. 45, No. 7, Page 501. 



n 



GRAPE PRUNING AND TRAINING 309 

gummy-resinous formation to be the direct result of wounding 
(though there are degenerative changes). The fungi are apparently 
a secondary feature which, however, may spread the injury to por- 
tions of the wood distant from the original points of the injury. 

Cuts should always be made with sharp shears in such a way 
as to prevent cracking and splitting. This may be avoided by hold- 
ing the shears so as not to bend the part at or below the point of 
cutting. Canes to be cut for spurs should never be cut at right 
angles to the grain, but at a slight angle. To do this best the blade 
of the shears should be placed against the vine part that is to remain 
and the cut made upward. On this subject Bioletti presents 
P""ig. 285 and the following discussion :* 

In spur pruning it is considered best to cut through the bud above 
the last one that it is desired to have grow, as at C in Fig. 28.j. This 
leaves the woody diaphragm intact and protects the spur from in- 
jury. If the spur is cut at Cj a long piece of internode is left, ex- 
posing the pith. As this pith dries and shrinks it allows water to 
enter and forms an excellent place for molds to grow which may 
destroy the bud below. It requires some skill and practice to cut 
exactly in the right place, and if by mistake the cut is made just be- 
low the diaphragm the breeding place for molds has its maximum 
size. For this reason most pruners make the cut at Co about half 
an inch above the last bud. If the shears are sharp and the cut made 
at an angle of about 45° behind the bud, no injury results. 

In removing a piece of old wood at the base of a spur or fruit 
cane it is best to leave a little projecting stub. Too close cutting 
in this case is apt to injure the spur or cane. The projecting stub 
can be removed the following year, when the spur has grown larger, 
withDut danger of injury. 

220, Vine pruning tools. — When vines are properly 
pruned annually the pruner will rarely need a tool 
strong-er than the single hand shears (Fig. 110), of which 
there are many styles. Some pruners prefer French, 
others Swiss patterns, but any shears that will hold a 
keen edge well, are of moderate weight and fit the hand 
well will do good work. Only when arms must be re- 
placed will the double hand shears (Fig. 114) or the saw 
be needed. Most pruners prefer the saw to the double 
hand shears for heavy work. The double hand shears 
are open to the objection that they split or otherwise in- 
jure the part to be left. Many pruners prefer that the 
saw shall have a curved rather than a straight blade. 

221. Trellis construction. — The most popular support 



♦California Bulletin 24l. 



310 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 

for grapevines, certainly of American varieties, is the 
trellis. Though there are several forms, depending upon 
the system of training, they all agree in the main points 
of construction. Posts of cedar, locust, chestnut or other 
wood durable when set in the ground are spaced at dis- 
tances depending upon the system, the character of vine 
growth, etc. End posts must be very firmly braced to 
withstand the weight of vines and fruit, especially dur- 
ing the strain caused by heavy winds. Figure 266 shows 
two ways of bracing, the most popular at A and B. 
Number 10 or 12 wire is generally used. Because of ex- 
pansion and contraction due to temperature the wires 
should pass through the staples loosely and at each end 
the slack be wound on a reel of some kind. Unless this 
is done and the wires partly unwound in the fall, the end 
posts and perhaps some others may be pulled loose dur- 
ing winter. 

222. Other supports than trellises and stakes. — In ama- 
teur practice grapes of all classes are largely grown upon 
arbors, porches, fences, buildings, trees, etc. The first 
is often excellent as a landscape gardening feature when 
it covers a walk. Where the principles of pruning and 
training are adapted to the kind of support, grapes of 
good enough quality for anyone may be so produced. 
But for business purposes trellises and stakes are de- 
servedly most popular because better results can be so 
produced. The advantages of the trellis over the arbor 
are : The trellis is cheaper and more easily built ; it will 
last longer and can be more easily repaired ; it will double 
the fruit-bearing surface of the vines, the size of arbor 
and trellis being the same ; the vines will be more pro- 
ductive and they may be pruned, sprayed and cultivated 
and the fruit more easily harvested. 

223. The American grape (mainly Labrusca varieties 
and hybrids) must be pruned both to prevent over- 
bearing and to secure high quality fruit without jeopard- 
izing the vigor of the vines. If common sense does not 



GRAPE PRUNING AND TRAINING 



311 



acknowledge these points the experiments of Keffer in 
Tennessee* will prove enlightening (''^4). Unpruned 
vines, according to this investigator, during the first sea- 
son of neglect yielded more fruit than did pruned ones, 
but the clusters on the pruned vines averaged heavier, 
and the load of grapes on the neglected vines was so heavy 
that a large proportion of the new growth died so that 
the subsequent crop was lighter on the neglected than on 
the pruned vines. Hence vines must be held within 
bounds in order to secure size and flavor and, in a series 
of years, quantity also. Proper pruning does this and 
also economizes land and facilitates various vineyard 
operations — spraying, cultivating, harvesting, etc. 




FIG. 268— UNPRUNED VINE TRAINED ACCORDING TO THE FAN SYSTEM 
A O is an arm of old wood attached to the main body of the vine. When 
pruning was done in the spring the cane A B was left as the fruiting cane. It 
produced the fruiting shoots 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 that season. In addition to leaving 
A B, two other canes were cut back, forming the spurs C and D. The spur D did 
not develop a renewal cane, but C produced two strong shoots, E and F. 

In order to prune intelligently, the operator must un- 
derstand the fruit-bearing habit and its relation to wood 
growth. As already noted (56, 73), the fruit is borne 
near the bases of this season's shoots, which spring from 
resting buds formed last season. Hence it is easy to 
calculate the amount of fruit a vine should bear. In order 

* Bulletin No. 77. 



312 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 

to produce the average yield of 15 pounds — about 50 
good-sized clusters — 20 or 30 buds, or an equivalent of 
spurs, must be left at pruning time in winter or early 
spring, this calculation being based on an average of two 
clusters to each bud left. Sometimes these buds may be 
on only one cane, but generally better results are secured 
when two or three canes are chosen upon the main stem 
or stems, according to the system of training employed. 
Hence proper pruning of the grape aims to remove all 
canes and spurs except those needed to supply the de- 
sired number of buds and bunches. 

Pruning may be done at any time between the fall of 
the leaves and a time two or more weeks before the buds 
are expected to swell in spring. It is not considered good 
practice to prune very near the time of bud swelling be- 
cause the vines are very prone to "bleed" (15) . Where the 
winters are severe and the vines must be covered it is 
a good practice to give a rough pruning in the fall so they 
may be covered easily. More wood should be left in such 
cases than is actually needed because there may be more 
or less loss due to covering and uncovering as well as to 
possible frost injury. The superfluous wood and buds 
may be removed when the vines are uncovered shortly 
before growth starts. While there is some basis for the 
advice not to prune when the wood is frozen, it is less 
because of any physiological reason than because the 
wood is then very brittle and hence subject to unusual 
breakage. 

That the system of training is far less important than 
judicious pruning is proved by the fact that excellent re- 
sults are secured with a considerable number of systems. 
Nevertheless there is, between pruning and training, an 
inter-relationship that fits a certain system better than 
any other to a given variety or environment. Hence the 
many systems and modifications of systems seen in the 
various grape-growing sections. Pruning and training 
depend largely upon the fashion of the locality and the 



GRAPE PRUNING AND TRAINING 313 

judg-ment of the operator. Vigorous vines, such as Con- 
cord and Niagara, may be trained in a greater variety of 
ways than can the weaker ones like Delaware. The 
former seem to be best adapted to the drooping systems 
of training and the latter to the upright styles. The terms 
"drooping" and "upright" refer to the positions taken by 
the bearing shoots, not to those of the arms or canes. 
These two general classes are widely popular, whereas 
the horizontal styles have practically gone out of use. 
Before discussing systems of training, however, let us 
develop the vines through the preliminary stages to the 
time when systematic training really begins. 

The young grapevine received from the nursery is 
sometimes the growth of one season, but usually that of 
two seasons. Often, perhaps generally, it may have two 
or more canes, each bearing numerous buds. All of this 
growth, except two or three nodes and internodes on the 
strongest cane, should be cut off, thus leaving a single 
stem perhaps a foot long and bearing two or three sturdy 
buds. The plants so pruned should be set at desired dis- 
tances apart (8 to 10 feet) between both vines and rows 
and given good cultural care the first season. The shoots 
may sprawl on the ground or better be fastened to bean 
poles to prevent injury. A couple of weeks before growth 
starts the following spring the vine must be cut back 
again to two or three buds. From these only one, or at 
most, two shoots, depending on the system of training 
later to be adopted, should be allowed to grow during 
the second season in the vineyard. These two shoots 
will form permanent trunks. Up to the beginning of the 
third season no trellis is usually needed. Sometimes, 
however, extra strong vines are trained to the lowest 
wire during the second season. The style of trellis will 
depend upon the system of training to be followed. 

As the illustrations of grape-training systems (Figs. 269 
to 273) have been borrowed from the Kentucky 
Experiment Station, clearness of description will be 



314 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



gained by using the condensed text used in Bulletin 92 
of that station (224 to 226). This follows: 

224. The double Kniffin system. — The permanent trellis 
may now be erected. At each end of a row a stout post 
is set and firmly braced. At intervals of 20 feet, or twice 
the distance of the vines in the row, the intermediate 
posts are set, thus allowing two vines in the space be- 
tween any two successive posts. For this method of 
training the posts should be long enough to stand 5)^ 
to 6 feet above ground. Two No. 10 wires are stretched 
along the row, the lower 36 to 40 inches and the upper 




FIG. 269— THE KNIFFIN SYSTEM. BEFORE PRUNING GRAPEVINE 

66 to 70 inches above ground. These wires are stapled to 
the posts, but not so tightly as to prevent the slack from 
being taken up from time to time, preferably at the ends. 
If the growth of the second year is strong and vigorous, 
one of the two shoots referred to above may be permitted 
to grow until it reaches the lower wire and the other to 
the top wire. Each must have its tip pinched off when it 
reaches its respective wire. This will usually cause the 



GRAPE PRUNING AND TRAINING 315 

development of two or more lateral branches, one of 
which may be trained in each direction upon its own wire 
and tied loosely, all others being pinched out. If this 
pinching of the tip should not be done at the proper time, 
each cane at the annual pruning time should be sharply 
bent and tied to its respective wire. When spring growth 
begins this will commonly cause the pushing out of a 
strong shoot at the point where the bend occurs. This 
shoot may be trained out upon and loosely tied to the 
wire in the opposite direction. 

The object in either case is to produce two main up- 
right stems, one stopping at each wire, each with a T- 



^.^^ 



FIG. 270— THE KNIFFIN SYSTEM OF TRAINING THE VINE SHOWN IN FIG 271 

shaped head whose branches run out horizontally upon 
the wires. If the T head is complete at each wire at the 
end of the second season, the horizontal canes, after the 
wood is well matured, should be cut back in most cases 
to not more than three or four buds each. In later years, 
as the vine grows larger and stronger, the horizontal 
canes may be left longer at each annual pruning. 

Upon the opening of spring a strong shoot will com- 



316 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 

monly grow out from each bud of these horizontal canes. 
Upon the first three or four joints of these spring shoots 
flowers and fruit are produced. In this system these 
shoots should not be permitted to grow out horizontally 
along the wires. If they become attached by their 
tendrils they should be pulled loose again and allowed 
to hang directly downward. This will tend to equalize 
the growth of the several shoots, which, under natural 
conditions, tend to develop most vigorously from the 
terminal bud. 

The subsequent pruning and training of the vine can 
best be explained by reference to the figures. Figure 269 
represents an average six-year-old vine as it appeared 
in January just before pruning. The cane or arm, A, 
grew two years before and was considerably longer than 
now when the vine was pruned in January one year ago. 
This cane was then shortened to the length now shown, 
all its neighboring canes were removed and it was tied 
to the wire. During the following summer the seven 
strong shoots, a, h, c, d, e, f, g, grew from it, together with 
one or two weaker shoots, and bore fruit in that season. 
When pruned in late winter, the entire arm, down to ^ 
inch from the base of a, together with the canes b, c, d. 
e, f and g, was removed by one cut at X, and the cane, a, 
was shortened to about ten buds and tied to the wire in 
the same position formerly occupied by A, as will be 
seen in Fig. 270. 

The arm B also grew two years ago and was shortened 
to about seven buds in January last year. From these 
seven buds there grew, as will be seen in the figure, six 
strong shoots, each of which, like the shoots from arm A, 
bore two to four clusters of fruit. This arm B was also, 
like A, cut off at X with all its canes except the one 
nearest the base. This only is reserved to take the place 
of B upon the wire, after being shortened to eight or 
nine buds. The same process was repeated upon the left- 
hand side of the vine, leaving it, after the pruning was 



GRAPE PRUNING AND TRAINING 



317 



completed, as seen in Fig. 270. It will thus be seen that 
the entire pruning for a vine trained upon this method 
can be done with from eight to twelve cuts. As the vine 
grows older the canes in the annual pruning may be left 
a little longer, the number of buds to be left varying with 
the age, vigor and variety of each individual vine to be 
treated. 

It will be noticed that two other canes growing out 
upon the old wood at the head have been shortened to 
two buds, thus making the so-called spurs as seen at .yj" in 
Fig. 270. This is done more 
or less frequently when 
suitable strong-growing 
canes are developed close to 
the top of the main trunk. 
It provides a new cane tc 
place upon the wire the fol- 
lowing year from a point as 
close to the original T head 
as possible ; otherwise the 
horizontal arms will become 
longer each year. It is de- 
sirable to keep the old wood 
as short as practicable. 

To one unaccustomed to 
this work, it would appear 
that the vine as seen in Fig. 
270 is ruined from such close 
pruning, but experience has 
demonstrated beyond ques- 
tion that it is only by such apparently severe treatment 
that the best and most profitable crops of fruit can be 
grown. 

During the coming season a strong shoot maj^ be ex- 
pected from most of the 30 to 35 buds left upon the hori- 
zontal canes, and each shoot may reasonably be expected 
to bear two to four good clusters of grapes. It will be 




FIG. 271— END OF MUNSON ROW 

Note vines are fastened to the wires, not 

to the posts 



318 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



seen, therefore, that it is not necessary to leave a large 
number of buds upon a vine after pruning to meet the 
requirements of a good crop of fruit. The fruit w^ill, 
moreover, be of much better quality than that produced 
by an unpruned and neglected vine (74). 

225. The Munson system. — A second method of man- 
agement, which possesses much merit, is the Munson 
system of training, so called from its originator, the late 




FIG. 272- -MUNSON SYSTEM OF TRAINING VINE UNPRUNED 

T. V. Munson, the grape specialist of Texas. In this 
system, as practiced by the originator, the trellis is made 
by placing two light posts or stakes in each hole along 
the row, their tops separated 18 to 24 inches, like the two 
sides of the letter V, and standing 6 feet high. A wire is 
stretched lengthwise along the tops of these posts and 
a third wire about a foot lower upon cross wires midway 
between them. 

In our own practice essentially the same arrangement 
of wires is secured by the use of a single post in each 
hole with a 2-foot piece of 2 x 4-inch joist spiked firmly 



GRAPE PRUNING AND TRAINING 319 

against the top like the letter T, as shown in Fig-. 271 
The wires in this way are stretched along the ends of this 
horizontal piece, with the third midway between them 
and 10 or 12 inches lower. In this system a single main 
trunk is grown to the middle or lower wire, and one or 
two canes (depending upon age and vigor) are left after 
pruning to run each way upon this middle wire and se- 
curely tied. The remaining or outer wires are used only 
to support the growing shoots, which, with but little 
attention, grow out over them as seen in the illustration. 
As their length and weight increase they gradually 
droop toward the ground, having in the meantime secured 




FIG. 273— MUNSON SYSTEM OF GRAPE TRAINING. VINE PRUNED 

by their tendrils a firm hold upon the wire. The appear- 
ance of the vine at the end of the season's growth will be 
easily understood from Fig. 272. 

Pruning vines in this system is similar to that in the 
Kniffin system, except that only one main trunk is used 
and the canes are attached to only the middle or lowest 
wire. Thus a strong and vigorous mature vine should 
have two or more canes left in each direction after prun- 
ing, in order to furnish a sufficient number of buds for 



320 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 

fruiting. The vine is renewed back to the head as com- 
pletely as possible each year. Fig. 273. 

This system requires slightly more material and 
trouble in erecting the trellis, but the results secured have 
been unexcelled by those of any other system, especially 
in the case of strong-growing vines, while even with weak 
growers, like Delaware, the results have been highly 
satisfactory. 

Among the advantages of this method is the favor- 
able position of the fruit, which cannot be soiled by spat- 
tering of mud in heavy rains. The grapes are overhung 
by a leafy canopy which protects them from the hot sun, 
while a free circulation of air is secured, and they are 
conveniently placed for spraying and gathering. A minor 
advantage, appreciated in a private garden, is the facility 
it affords for passing from one row to another by slightly 
stooping and walking under the wires. The elevated 
position of the wires and vines also greatly adds to the 
ease of cultivating the entire ground beneath. 

226. Kniffin modifications and other systems. — F. E. 
Gladwin* discusses several modifications of the Kniffin 
system and other systems more or less prominent in the 
east and in growing varieties in which Labrusca ''blood" 
plays an important part. His descriptions, slightly con- 
densed, follow (227-237). 

227. The two-stem four-cane Kniffin system is very 
similar to the one described above, the only difference 
being that two permanent trunks are brought up 
from the ground, one to the height of the lower wire, 
where two canes are developed from spurs on one stem, 
and tied to the wire as before ; the other stem is carried 
to the top wire and two canes are developed from it. 
Some vineyards tie the two stems together to make them 
stiffer. In using this method, the canes from each stem 
may have the same number of buds, each stem being con- 
sidered as a distinct vine. 

* New York Agricultural Experiment Station, Circular 16. 



GRAPE PRUNING AND TRAINING 



321 



228. The Y-stem Kniffin system differs from the above 
in that instead of the two stems being brought up from 
the ground, one is taken from the other at a distance a 
little below the lower wire, carried to the top wire and 
there tied. The number of canes and the subsequent 
treatment are the same as in the others so far described. 

229. The umbrella Kniffin system (Fig. 274). — The chief 
differences between this and the true Kniftin system are 
the use of two instead of four canes, and the somewhat 
changed position. Two canes of eight to twenty buds are 
developed from spurs on the trunk at the top wire. These 
are tied to 

right and left /2f ^^ *' 

along this 
wire, then 
bent down to 
the lower wire 
and secured. 
The canes are 
renewed 
yearly from 
spurs. 

230. The one-wire Kniffin system or low Kniffin system 
is a modification of the umbrella, but differs in that the 
trellis has only one wire three to four feet above the 
ground. The single stem extends up to the wire, where 
two canes of ten to twelve buds extend to right and left. 
The renewal each year, like all the others so far discussed, 
is from spurs. High quality of fruit and cheapness of 
trellis commend this system. 

Other modifications of the drooping type of training 
for one reason or another have been dropped in com- 
mercial vineyards. The more common are the six or 
eight-cane Kniffin in which three and four wires are re- 
quired respectively, making an expensive trellis nec- 
essary. 




FIG. 274— PRUNED AND UNPRUNED VINE. "UM- 
BRELLA" KNIFFIN SYSTEM 




FIG. 275— VARIOUS METHODS OF VINE PRUNING POPULAR IN NEW YORK 
1, High renewal system at end of season's growth; / a, vine trimmed and tied 
following spring; 2, Keulca Lake system, ten-year vine, pruned, not tied; 2 a, stripped 
for tying; 2 b, tied; 3, horizontal arm spur system, end of season's growth; 
3 a, after trimming. 



GRAPE PRUNING AND TRAINING 323 

231. The upright type of training- carries two or 
more canes or arms along a horizontal wire or obliquely 
across the wires. The two methods of renewing in this 
type naturally divide into two groups, namely "high re- 
newal," or "cane renewal," and "spur renewal." 

232. The high renewal system is popular in many grape- 
growing sections, there being much to commend it. The 
trellis is made with two, three or more wires, usually 
three. The lower wire is placed 18 to 30 inches above 
ground, while the second and third are from 18 to 20 
inches apart, respectively. The main trunk or stem of 
the vine is carried up to or just below the first wire, and 
two canes, each bearing from 6 to 10 buds, are taken off, 
preferably a little below the level of the wire. One is tied 
to the right and the other to the left. The bearing shoots 
that grow from the buds on these canes are tied to the 
second wire when they have reached a sufficient length 
and to the third as soon as growth will permit. When 
they reach above the upper wnre, they may be pinched 
back or cut off. 

The beginning of the next year should see the vine 
again cut back to two canes that have grown from spurs 
or canes of the previous year, this cutting being as close 
to the head of the vine as possible. Near the base of each 
of these canes, but upon older wood at the head of the 
stem, short spurs carrying two or three buds arc main- 
tained. From these spurs shoots develop and in turn are 
used to furnish the fruiting canes of the following year. 
Thus, the spurs are the means of renewing the fruiting 
wood. From the above, it will be seen that the amount 
of old wood retained is reduced to a minimum, while the 
labor of tying is greatly increased. 

233. The Keuka system (Fig. 275-2) practiced in the 
Keuka Lake, New York, district, appears as a modification 
of the high renewal, but as there are some dififerences a de- 
scription is warranted. The first year after setting, the vines 
are allowed to grow at random on the ground. At the 



324 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 

beginning of the second year they are pruned back to 
two buds. If the vine is a strong grower, it is tied this 
season to the lower wire of the trellis, which is from 18 
to 20 inches above ground. The beginning of the third 
year finds the vines cut back to a stem or trunk 10 to 20 
inches high, tied to the lower wire. The fourth year the 
vine consists of the short stem and two or three canes, 
each of 5 to 8 buds, laid along the lower wire and tied. 
The shoots from these are carried perpendicularly to the 
second and third wires, which are about 20 inches apart, 
as fast as growth will permit. 

The following year all the wood is cut away except two 
or three canes that have grown from the buds nearest the 
head of the trunk. These canes have five to eight buds. 
The number retained after each pruning depends upon 
the variety and the vigor of the vine. If two canes are left 
they are tied to right and left along the lower wire ; if 
three, the third is carried to the second wire and tied. 

As there is a tendency for long spurs to result from the 
repeated renewals secured in this manner, frequently 
buds from the head of the stem are allowed to develop 
and fruiting wood secured from them. Thus the fruiting 
wood arises from near the head of the trunk, and as this 
is usually short almost the entire vine is renewed an- 
nually. When the trunk approaches the end of its use- 
fulness a shoot is allowed to grow from the ground to 
develop into a new trunk, the old one being cut away. 
The advantages claimed for this method of training are 
the low head, the reduction of the old wood to a minimum 
and the ease of getting a complete renewal. 

234. The spur renewal or horizontal arm spur system. 
(Fig. 276.) The trellis for this system is practically the same 
as for the high renewal. Two canes are placed right and 
left of the trunk, which has been brought to the height of 
the lower wire or just below. The number of buds left 
on each cane will depend upon the vigor of the vine and 
the availability of the space between the adjoining vines. 



GRAPE PRUNING AND TRAINING 



325 



These canes are to become permanent arms, doing service 
for several years. The shoots that develop from buds on 
these canes the present year are cut back to two buds 
in fall or w^inter. Two shoots are allowed to grow from 
each of these spurs and tied to the upper wires. 

In the fall the cane developed from the upper bud of 
the spur is cut entirely away, and the other cane cut to 
two buds as before. Then at the beginning of the next 
season there are, as in the previous year, two shoots 

springing from 
a spur on a per- 
manent arm. 
The spurs will 
lengthen fast 
and become 
crooked, hence 
it is the best 
practice to cut 
them away en- 
tirely every few 
years and grow 
others from 
shoots that 
arise from the 
arms. The spurs may be distributed from 5 to 20 inches 
apart on the arms. 

235. The spur renewal or Chautauqua system is a modi- 
fication of the horizontal arm spur system just described. 
Permanent arms are used to support the canes, which 
are tied yearly to a two or three-wire trellis. These canes 
may be tied obliquely or perpendicularly. If two wires 
are used, they are usually 34 inches apart, if three, about 
20 inches apart. The canes for tying up the following 
year either develop directly from the old wood of the 
arms, from spurs on the arms, or from the base buds 
of the past season's canes. This system has a strong 
hold upon the vineyardists of Chautauqua County, New 




FIG. 276— VINE IN ITS FOURTH YEAR. PRUNED 
ACCORDING TO HORIZONTAL-ARM SPUR RE- 
NEWAL SYSTEM. 



326 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



York, as the principal grape, the Concord, adapts itself 
fairly well to it. The old arms should be renewed at 
frequent intervals in order to use it to the best advantage, 
as in time they become crooked, gnarled and the CKtremi- 
ties often a great distance from the head of the vine. 

236. The fan system, while still used in certain localities, 
is not nearly so popular as formerly. Here the re.iewals 
are made yearly from spurs near the ground, retain- 
ing very little old wood. One serious objection to the 
system is the tendency of the spurs to be lengthened, 
becoming crooked and reaching in some instances to 
midway between the first and second wires. The shoots 
are tied to the wires in the direction they naturally as- 
sume, vertically, horizontally or obliquely across the 
wire. In regions where grapes are grown for home use 




FIG. 277— HUDSON HORIZONTAL SYSTEM. VINE OF VARIOUS AGES 
A, pruned vine in third year; B, pruned vine in fourth year; C, unpruned vine 

in fourth year. 

and the climate necessitates winter protection, this sys- 
tem is used to advantage. 

237. The horizontal type is little used at present, as 
the cost of the trellis and the lal^or of tying render it 
prohibitive. One cane arising from a trunk 1 to 2 feet 
high is left after each pruning. This is carried perpen- 
dicularly to the top wire and the shoots arising therefrom 
are tied to slats or wires extending vertically from the 
lower to the upper wire of the trellis. The one advantage 
of the svstem is the ease of control for varieties that are 



C.KAl'K PRrXIXG AXn TRAINING 



327 



likely to overbear or are already weakened and require 
eareful nursing" to bring' them back. 

238. The horizontal-arm spur system (Fig. 275) has a 
permanent arni on each side of the vine head at the lower 
wire to which each is tied. Annually each cane produced 
from these arms is cut back to a spur with two well- 
formed buds, the number of spurs depending upon the 
variety, the age of the vine, etc. The bearing shoots are 
tied to the upper wire. When spurs become weak or 
gnarly, they are replaced by new shoots made to start 
from a node on the horizontal arm. When an arm be- 




FIG. 278— CAYWOOD SYSTEM OF GRAPE TRAINING 
A, pruned vine; B, one unpruned. Compare with Munson system Figs. 271 to 273. 

gins to fail a new one is developed from the head. Prun- 
ing and training are otherwise the same as in the upright 
or high renewal system. While this system produces 
more fruit with certain varieties, it is open to the objec- 
tions that pruning is more costly and tedious, and more 
old wood is left than is usually considered desirable. 
239, The Hudson horizontal system (Fig.277), popular 



328 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



in the Hudson Valley, employs two wires, a stout stake 
v.'hich reaches above the top wire, and is driven in the 
ground behind each vine, and four vertical slats to each 
vine fastened a foot or so apart to the wires, but not reach- 
ing the ground. Some growers use narrow woven wire 
fencing of large mesh. The vine trunk is about a foot high. 
One cane and a spur are left at pruning time, the former 
to renew the bearing part. The new shoot from the spur 
is tied to the stake. It is cut long enough at pruning time 




FIG. 279 
PARRALES SYSTEM OF TRAINING VINES. NOTE ARRANGEMENT OF WIRES 

to reach the top of the stake, to w-hich, or to the wires, 
or both, it may be tied. Each cane is counted upon to 
bear a dozen shoots, six on each side. These are trained 
horizontally and fasteiied to the slats. Summer pruning 
is done when the shoots threaten to become too long. 
Growers claim that this system favors uniform distribu- 
tion of the bearing wood and that the fruit is both well 
supported and shaded. 

240. The overhead Cay wood system (Fig. 278) has no 
advantages over the Munson system, of which it is appar- 
ently a modification. In it the three horizontal wires, 



GRAPE I'RUNING AXD TRAINING 



329 



stretched at equal height, are 6 feet above ground. The 
center wires are stapled to the posts, the other two to 3-foot 
wooden crosspieces. In pruning, the vines are cut back to 
five spurs and five canes, the latter fastened to the wires 
three to right of the head and two to the left one year, the 
division being reversed the next year. Except when cur- 
rants, gooseberries or plants of similar growth and habit 
are grown beneath the trellises (a popular method in the 
Hudson Valley), this system seems to have little to com- 
mend it above the Mun- 
son svstem in its modern 
form "(Figs. 271 to 273). 

241. The Parrales or 
overhead trellis used in 
training certain Almerian 
varieties is virtually 
identical with the style 
used in growing mus- 
cadines in America (243). 
From the head 10 or 15 
canes each 1 to 6 feet 
long, depending on the 
vigor of the vine, are ex- 
tended in various direc- 
tions. Annually these canes are renewed as near as pos- 
sible to the main trunk. Spurs are left each year to 
provide for this renewal. 

242. The overhead arbor or multiple cross wire system 
(Fig. 280) is popularly employed in growing the muscadine 
varieties (243), which' are usually set 20x20. 10x20 or 15x15 
feet apart. The posts, one to each vine, are very stout and 
long enough to extend 7 feet above ground. At the ends 
of the vine rows on each side of the plantation, well- 
braced posts are set. From them No. 10 galvanized wires 
are passed over the tops of the vine posts to which they 
are stapled. Other wires of smaller size (No. 14) and 
2 feet apart run parallel with each set of main wires, thus 




FIG. 280 — MUSCADINE (ROTUNDI- 
FOLIA) GRAPEVINE, SHOWING ITS 
SHALLOW SPREADING ROOT SYS- 
TEM AND A POPULAR METHOD OF 
TRAINING THE TOP. 



330 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



forming squares. Generally only one trunk is grown 
beside and to the top of each post, to which it may be 
fastened at various points. At the top it is pinched to 
develop side shoots for covering the arbor. The shoots 
are trained out in various directions so as to distribute 
thern evenly over the wires. 

243. The muscadine grapes, popular in southern gar- 
dens, but only recently becoming known commercially, 




FIG. 281— CROSS-WIRE SYSTEM SHOWING PRUNED VINE 

are rarely pruned because pruning is supposed to injure 
the vines. This is an error; for if pruned at the proper 
season — October or November — they will not be hurt, 



GRAPE PRUNING AND TRAINING 331 

but benefited. Tf ])runed later — December to February — 
they bleed moreor lesscopiouslyas spring" opensandmake 
poorer growth the season following (15). After young 
vines have made growths of, say, 6 inches in spring, they 
may be pruned without serious damage, but large vines 
pruned then will bleed badly. Vines pruned later may 
be a week or two later in producing their shoots than un- 
pruned vines or vines pruned at the proper time (215). 
Methods of pruning used upon Labrusca varieties may 
be employed with this group of varieties, but the musca- 
dines are generally grown upon arbors (Fig. 280). 

244, The cross-wire system, used near Marlboro, N. Y., 
has posts 8 feet apart each way 6^ feet above ground and 
surmounted by two wires crossing at right angles. The 
vines are trained to the posts as single trunks and made 
to develop four arms, each of which extends along a wire 
(Fig. 281). Annually these canes are renewed, 

245, The umbrella system, sometimes used on hillsides 
and uneven ground where a trellis would be difficult to 
construct, consists of a post with two cross arms at right 
angles at the top (Fig. 261). The vines reach the cross 
during the second year. From the vine head arms and 
canes are developed as in the cross wire system (244). 
Pruning consists in cutting back the vines to the re- 
quisite number of buds indicated by the strength of the 
vine. The posts are usually 4 to 5 feet above ground. 

246, Californian systems* of vine pruning may be divided into 
two classes according to the arrangement of the arms on the trunk 
of the vine. In the commonest systems, there is a definite head to 
the trunk, from which all the arms arise sj'mmetrically at nearly 
the same level. The vines of these systems may be called "headed 
vines." In the other systems, the trunk is elongated 4 to 8 feet and 
the arms are distributed regularly along the whole or the greater 
portion of its length. The vines of these systems, owing to the rope- 
like form of the trunks, are called "cordons." 

The headed vines are divided according to the length of the ver- 
tical trunk into high, 2-3 feet, medium, iVj feet, and low, OR inches. 
The cordons may be vertical or horizontal, according to the direction 

* Paragraphs 246 to 263 have been condensed from F. T. Bioletti's Bulletin 246 
of the California Experiment Station. 



332 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 

of the trunk, which is from 4 to S feet long. The horizontal cordons 
n^ay be single or composed of two branches extending in opposite 
directions. Double and even multiple vertical cordons occur, but 
they are very inadvisable and have no advantages. 

The arrangement of the arms of a headed vine may be sym- 
r^etrical in all directions at an angle of about 45 degrees. Such a 
vine is said to be "vase-formed," though the hollow center which this 
term implies is not essential. This is the form used in the great 
majority of California vineyards. It is suitable for the "square" 
system of planting and cross cultivation. Where vines are planted 
in "avenues," particularly when trellised and where cross cultivation 
is impossible, the arms are given a "fan-shaped" arrangement in a 
vertical plane, to facilitate working of trellised vines. 

On the vertical or upright cordon, the arms are arranged at as 
regular intervals as possible on all sides of the trunk from the top 
to within 12 or 15 inches of the bottom. On the horizontal cordon 
they are arranged similarly, but as nearly as possible on the upper 
side of the trunk only. 

Each of these systems may again be divided into two sub-systems, 
according to the management of the annual growth or canes. In 
one, called short or spur pruning, spurs oj one to three eyes are 
left for fruit production. In the other, called long or cane pruning, 
long canes are left. In rare cases an intermediate form is adopted 
in which long spurs or short canes of five or six eyes are left. In 
cane pruning and half-long pruning each fruit cane is accompanied 
by one or two short renewal spurs. Systems of pruning, where only 
long canes are left without renewal spurs, are not in use in Cali- 
fornia. In all systems, replacing spurs are left wherever and when- 
ever needed. 

Other modifications are introduced by the manner of disposal of 
the fruit canes which may be tied up vertically or bowed in a circle 
and tied to a stake driven at the foot of each vine, or they may be 
tied laterally to wires stretching along the rows in a horizontal, 
ascending or descending direction. 

Figure 290 b, representing a headed, vase-formed vine, with a 
medium trunk and short fruit spurs, is the most common system used 
in California. It is suited for all small growing vines which bear on 
the lower buds, for most wine grapes and for muscats. The unit of 
pruning in this case is a fruit spur of 1 to 3 internodes, according 
to the vigor of the variety and of the individual cane. 

Figure 290 a differs from b onty in the~higher trunk and the longer 
arrns. It is commonly used for Tokay and other large growing 
varieties, especially in rich soil and when planted far apart. 

Figure 290 c has the same form of body as a and b. except that the 
arrns:- are somewhat less numerous. The unit of pruning is a short 
ffuit cane of four to five internodes, accompanied by a renewal spur 
of one internode. It is suited for vigorous table grapes, especially 
for Cornichon and Malaga in i^ich soil, which do not bear well on 
short spurs. This is a difficult system to keep in good shape owing 



GRAPE PRUNING AND TRAINING 



333 



to the tendency for all the vigor to go to the ends of the fruit canes. 
It is difficult to obtain vigorous canes on the renewal spurs. Oc- 
casional short pruning is usually necessary to keep the vines in 
proper shape. 

Figure 290 a is similar to c in form, Imt the number of arms is still 
further reduced to 2, 3, or at most 4. The unit of pruning is a fruit 
cane of 2}^ to 3^/2 feet with its renewal spur. Owing to their length 
the fruit canes require support and are tied to a high stake. 

This method is used in a large number of Sultanina and Sultana 
vineyards and for certain wine grapes, especially Semillun and 
Cabernet. It is not to be recommended in any case, as it has several 
very serious defects. 

The difficulty of obtaining new wood from the renewal spurs is 
even greater than in the system shown in Figure 290 c. The length and 
vertical position of the fruit canes cause the main growth and vigor 
of the vine to he expended on the highest shoots (73). The renewal 
spurs are thus so shaded that, even though their buds start, the 
shoots make but a weak 
growth. The result is 
that at the following 
pruning all the good 
new wood is at the top 
of the fruit canes of 
the previous year, 
where it cannot be uti- 
lized. The pruner has 
to choose then between 
reverting to spur prun- 
ing, thus getting no 
crop, or . using the 
weak growth from the 
renewal spurs for fruit 
canes. In this case he 
may get blossoms but 
little or no fruit of any 
value. 

Other defects of this 
method are that the 
fruiting shoots are ex- 
cessively vigorous and 
therefore often tend to 
drop their blossoms 
without setting and the 
fruit when produced is 
massed together so it 
ripens unevenly and is 
difficult to gather. It 
also requires a tall and 
expensive stake. 




■10. 282— SULTANINA VINE SHOWING EFFECT 
OF TYING FRUIT CANES IN VERTICAL 

POSITION 
S, suckers and water sprouts; F, strong fruit 
wood; /, weak fruit wood; C, previous year's fruit 
canes which have borne a crop. 



334 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 

Figure 290 b, an improvement on the last system, differs only in the 
method of treating the fruit canes. These are bent over in the 
form of a circle and tied by their middle part to a stake which may 
be smaller and lower than that needed for the vertical canes. This 
bowing of the canes has several useful effects. The change of di- 
rection moderates the tendency of the vigor of the vine to expend 
itself only on the terminal shoots. More shoots therefore are formed 
on the fruit canes and as their vigor is somewhat decrea.sed they 
tend to be more fruitful. The slight mechanical injury caused by 
the bending operates in the same direction (104). 

The excess of vigor thus being diverted from the fruit canes 
causes the renewal spurs to form vigorous shoots, which soon grow 
above the fruit shoots and obtain the light and air they need for 
their proper development. This method is used successfully for 
certain wine grapes such as Riesling, Cabernet and Semillon. It is 
unsuited to large, vigorous varieties or for vines on rich soil planted 
wide apart. In these cases two fruit canes are usually insufficient 
and, if more are used, the grapes and leaves are so massed together 
that they are subject to mildew and do not ripen evenly or well. 
The bowing and tying of the canes require much skill and care. 

The body, arms and annual pruning of the system shown in 
Fig. 265 are similar to those of Fig. 288, with the exception that the 
arms are given a fan-shaped arrangement in one plane. It differs 
in the disposal of the fruit canes, which are supported by a trellis 
stretching along the row from vine to vine. This method, largely 
used for the Sultanina (Thompson's Seedless), is the best system 
for vigorous vines which require long pruning, wherever it is pos- 
sible to dispense with cross cultivation. It is also suitable for any 
long-pruned varieties when growing in very fertile soil. 

The vertical cordon system consists of an upright trunk 414 feet 
high with short arms and fruit spurs scattered evenly and sym- 
metrically from the top to within 15 inches of the bottom. This 
system is used in many Emperor vineyards in the San Joaquin 
valley. Its advantages are that it allows the large development of 
the vine and the large number of spurs which the vigor of the Em- 
peror demands, without either crowding the fruit by the proximity 
of the spurs or spreading the vine so much that cultivation is in- 
terfered with. It also permits cross cultivation. 

One of its defects is that the fruit is subjected to various degrees 
of temperature and shading in different parts of the vine and the 
ripening and coloring are often uneven. A more vital defect is that 
it cannot be maintained perfnanently. The arms and spurs at the 
top of the trunk tend to absorb the energies of the vine and the 
lower arms and spurs become weaker each year until finally no 
growth at all is obtained below. After several years, most of the 
vines therefore lose their character of cordons and become simply 
headed vines with abnormally long trunks. 

The cordon can be re-established in this case by allowing a vigor- 



GRAPE PRUNING AND TRAINING 335 

(HIS sucker from which to develop one year to form a new trunk 
the next. The following year the old trunk nnist be removed en- 
tirely. An objection to this method is that it makes very large 
wounds in the most vital part of the vine — the base of the trunk. 

The unilateral, horizontal cordon system consists of a trunk about 
7 feet long, supported horizontally by a wire 2 feet from the 
ground. Arms and spurs are arranged along the whole horizontal 
part of the trunk. This systeni accomplishes the same objects as 
the vertical cordon. It allows a large development of the vine and 
numerous fruit spurs without crowding. It is superior to the vertical 
cordon in the distribution of the fruit, which is all exposed to ap- 
proximately the same conditions owing to the uniform distance of 
the fruit spurs from the ground. All parts of the trunk producing 
an annual growth of wood and fruit are equally exposed to light, and 
the tendency of the growth to occur principally at the part of the 
trunk farthest removed from the root is counteracted by the hori- 
zontal position. There is not the same difficulty therefore in main- 
taining this form of vine permanerltly there is with vertical cordons. 

The system should not be used for small weak vines, whether 
the weakness is a characteristic of the variety or due to the nature 
of the soil. It is suited to only very vigorous varieties such as 
Emperor, Almeria and the Persian grapes when growing far apart 
in rich, moist soil. 

246a. Periods of development.— The first period of development, 
which lasts one or two years, is devoted to developing a vigorous 
root system; the next two or three years to building up a shapely 
trunk and head, and a like period to forming the full complement 
of arms. At the end of five to nine years the framework of the 
vine is complete and should undergo no particular change of shape 
except a gradual thickening of trunk and arms. 

There are, therefore, several periods in the life of the vine with 
varying objects, and the methods of pruning must vary accordingly. 
These periods do not correspond exactly to periods of time, so it 
may be misleading to speak of pruning a two*-year-old or a three- 
year-old vine. One vine under certain conditions will reach the 
same stage of development in two years that another will reach only 
in three or four under other conditions. Under exceptionally fa- 
vorable conditions the first and second periods may be included in 
the first year and a completely formed vine may be obtained in five 
years. 

247. At planting time.— Whether cuttings, one-year-old rooted 
vines, or bench grafts are used, the vines need attention. The 
usual way to prune a good, rooted vine of average size with a single 
cane at the top and several good roots at the bottom is to shorten 
the cane to one or two buds and the roots to 2 or 4 inches, accord- 
ing to their size. Shortening the cane makes the vine less liable to 
dry out before rooting and forces the growth from the lower buds, 
which produce more vigorous shoots. The roots are shortened 



336 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



(Fig. 283) so there will be no danger of the ends being turned up 
wards when planted. If they are to be planted in a large hole they 
may be left as long as 5 or 6 inches; if to be 
planted with a crowbar or a dibble, they must 
be cut back to ^ inch. 

There is little if any advantage in leaving 
long pieces of roots. They are not feeding 
roots and are of no use to the vine until they 
develop feeding rootlets. This they will do 
as well if shortened as if left of full length, 
often better. The main advantage of a rooted 
vine over a cutting is that it forms rootlets 
more easily and rapidly. There may be a 
slight advantage in leaving 3 or 4 inches of 
the sound well-grown roots, as the reserve 
matters they contain probably promote a bet- 
ter growth of rootlets, but little or no differ- 
ence has been noted between the growth of 
vines of which the roots have been shortened 
to ^ inch and those which have been left 
longer. Where the roots are left long, more- 
over, more care and time are needed in 
planting. 

If the rooted vine has several canes, all but 
one should be removed entirely, and this one 
shortened to one or two eyes. The one left 
should be that which is strongest, has the best 
buds, and is the best placed. Where a hori- 
zontal cane is left, it should be cut back to the 
base bud. Otherwise the main growth may occur 
at a higher bud and the vine will have a crook 
which will result in a badly formed trunk. 

If equally vigorous canes are growing from 
different joints it is usually best to leave the 
lower cane. This brings the buds from which 
growth will come nearer to the roots, and 
leaves less of the original cutting. The upper 
joint between the canes is, moreover, often 
more or less decayed or imperfect. 

248. Planting. — Cuttings differ only in length ; the shortest, 8 to 
10 inches, are best suited to the nursery, those 12 to 14 inches to 
the field, the longest 16 to 18 inches in only the driest soils. Always 
they are cut just below a bud to facilitate healing and root forma- 
tion. The top may be cut just above a bud so as to leave the pro- 
tecting diaphragm or about 1 inch of internode. Cuttings are 
planted with the second bud at the level of the ground, leaving only 
one bud above. Rooted vines are planted with the two buds just 




FIG. 283— ROOTED 
VINE PRUNED 
This is a bench- 
grafted vine in which 
SS shows a sucker 
from the stock; U, the 
point of union of stock 
and cion, and CR the 
cion root. The dotted 
line at the bottom in- 
dicates where the roots 
should be pruned. 



GRAPE PRUNING AND TRAINING Z2)7 

above the surface. Bench grafts are planted with the union 1 inch 
above the surface. In the last case the soil must be hilled up so as 
to cover the union. 

249. First growing season.— The treatment during the first spring 
and summer will depend on what growth the vines are expected to 
make and on whether or not the vines are staked the first year. 

With cuttings and with both rooted vines and grafts where the 
growth will be moderate, staking the first year is unnecessary, 
though it has some slight advantages. In these cases, no pruning of 
any kind is necessary until the winter following the planting, ex- 
cept in the case of bench grafts, in which case the removal of the 
suckers from the stock and roots from the cion is essential. If the 
stocks have been well disbudded by the nurseryman, few suckers 
will develop. In moist soil, the cion roots may develop vigorously 
and must be removed before they grow too large, or they may pre- 
vent the proper development of the resistant roots. 

The removal of roots should usually be done some time in July. 
For this purpose the hill of soil is scraped away from the union and 
after the cion roots and suckers are removed it is replaced. In this 
second hilling up, the union should be barely covered so the soil 
around the union will be dry and unfavorable to a second 
growth of roots. Later in the season, about September, the soil 
should be removed entirely from around the union and any new 
roots that may have formed removed. The union is then left ex- 
posed to harden and mature, so it will pass the winter without injury. 

If the main shoot is kept upright it will be easy to produce a well- 
formed vine. In many cases no disbudding, thinning of shoots, or 
topping need be done. The object is to have as abundant a growth 
of foliage as possible in order to stimulate a vigorous and abundant 
root development (213, a). In other cases, where very good, 
rooted vines of vigorous varieties are planted in rich soil abundantly 
supplied with water, it is desirable to disbud the vine early in order 
to throw all its energies into the single main cane. In such cases 
staking before or just after planting is necessary, and methods 
similar to those described for the second season are used. 

250. First winter pruning.— At the end of the first growing season, 
an average good vine will have produced from three to five canes, 
the longest of which will be 2 to 3 feet long. Soon after the leaves 
have fallen in December or early in January the vines should lie 
pruned. The method is precisely similar to that used for rooted 
vines before planting except that the main roots are not touched. 
All the canes except one are removed. This one should be well 
matured, at least at the base, and should have well-formed eyes 
only, two eyes of which are saved. It is well also to cut ofif all 
shallow roots within 3 or 4 inches of the surface. This is nec- 
essary in the case of grafted vines if any have escaped the summer 
root-cutting. Some vines which may have made an exceptionally 
large growth may sometimes possess a cane large enough from 



338 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



which to start the trunk in the way described later for the second 
winter pruning. 

251. Staking. — If the vines have not been staked before, the stakes 
should be driven soon after pruning and before the starting of the 
buds. In order to preserve the alignment of the vineyard, they 
should be driven on the same side of every vine at a uniform dis- 
tance of about 2 inches. If driven closer they may injure large roots 
or even the main underground stem if the vines have not been care- 
fully planted vertically or slanting toward the side on which the 
stake is to be placed. 

The position of the stake should always be the leeward of pre- 
vailing winds during the growing season. That is, the stake should 
be so placed that the wind will press the vine tOiCard it instead of 





FIG. 284— TREATMENT OF AN AVERAGE VINE DURING SECOND SEASON 

a, Winter pruning; b, spring pruning — removal of suclcers (S) and thinning of 

shoots (W) ; c, summer treatment — tying to stake and topping. 

away from it. This will facilitate the work of keeping the vine 
upright and attached to the stake. If the vine is on the other side 
the pressure of the wind will stretch the string tight and the sway- 
ing of the vine will gradually wear it until it breaks, necessitating 
retying. By carefully observing this rule, very few vines will re- 
quire relying even if weak material like binding twine is used. 

252. Second summer pruning.— Before the starting of the buds, in 
the spring following the planting, most of the vines appear about 
the same as when they were planted. There is, however, a very 
notable difference; they have well-developed root systems in the 



GRAPE PRUNING AND TRAINING 339 

soil where tliey were formed. The result is they make a much more 
prompt and early start and will produce a much larger growth than 
the first season. Hence they require very careful attention from the 
pruner during the sirring and sunmier of the second season. Vines 
neglected at this time, in this respect, may make as large a growth, 
hut a large part of it will be wasted, the vines will he misformed 
and it will require one to two years longer to develop a suitable 
framework and to bring them into bearing, even though they are 
properly handled during subsetjuent years. The more vigorous the 
vines, the more necessary it is to handle them properly during this 
period. 

The main object during this second growing season is to develop 
a single, strong, vigorous and well-ripened cane from which to form 
the permanent trunk of the vine. This is done by concentrating all 
the energies of the vine into the growth of a single shoot. As soon 
as the buds start, or when the most precocious has developed a shoot 
of a few inches, the vines should be disbudded. This consists in 
rubbing off with the hand all buds and shoots except the two largest 
and best placed. The lowest upright shoots are usually the best. 
Leave only those which will make a straight vine. It is better to 
leave less-developed buds than a shoot which, when it grows, wih 
make an awkward crook with the underground stem. 

After this disbudding, the two shoots left will grow rapidly, as 
they receive all the energies of the root system. When the longest 
have grown 10 to 15 inches, they should be tied to the stake. Un- 
less this is done, they are likely to be broken off by any heavy wind, 
owing to their soft, succulent texture. Only the best placed and most 
vigorous of the two shoots should be tied up. If this shoot is grow- 
ing upright and near the stake, this can be done without any danger 
of injuring it. In this case the second shoot should be removed. Tf 
the shoot has to be bent over in tying it to the stake it may be in- 
jured. In such a case the second shoot should be allowed to grow 
until it is known whether the first has been injured. In case of 
injury the second shoot may be tied up the next time the vines are 
visited and the injured shoot removed. 

At the tying up of the reserved shoots, all new shoots which have 
developed since the first disbudding should be removed. As they 
are soft and easily injured the shoots should be tied up loosely 
after being brought around carefully to the windward side of the 
stake. 

They will require tying once more when they have grown an- 
other foot or 18 inches. There will then be two ties, one at 2 or 3 
inches from the top of the stake and the other at about the middle. 
If the vines have a tall stake and are to be headed very high, an- 
other tying higher up may be needed later. 

With vines making only a moderate growth, no other pruning 
will be needed until the winter. Exceptionally vigorous vines, how- 
ever, may make a cane 8, 10 or more feet long. Such a cane is 
heavy and is very likely to break the cords by which it is attached 



340 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



to tlie stake. In this case it may break off at the bottom, or at least 
will form an awkward crook near the ground when it matures. In 
either case it is difficult to form a good trunk the following year. 
Even when the ties do not break, the cane will not be well suited 
for the commencement of a trunk, as the joints will be so long that 
it will be impossible to leave enough well-placed buds at the winter 
pruning. 

Both these difficulties are avoided by timelv topping. When such 
vigorously growing canes have grown 12 or 18 inches above the top 
of the stake they are cut back about level with the stake. This is 
most conveniently done with a long-bladed knife or a piece of split 
bamboo. After topping, the cane ceases to grow in length and 
laterals start at most of the joints. It is less 
exposed to the action of the wind and the laterals 
supply the buds needed for forming the vine at 
the winter pruning. 

The result of the second season's growth, 
then, is to produce a single vigorous cane 
with or without laterals. This is the cane which 
is to develop into the permanent trunk of the 
vine. It must not only be large and vigorous, 
but must be properly matured. If the vine is 
allowed to grow too late in the season, an early 
frost may destroy the unmatured cane and much 
of the results of the year's growth will be wasted. 
Such a frost may indeed kill the entire vine. 
Grafted vines are particularly liable to injury 
from this cause, as if they are killed down to the 
union they are completely ruined. Ungrafted 
vines when killed to the ground may be renewed 
from a sucker next year. This sucker, however, 
is likely to grow with such vigor that it is even 
more liable to injury from an autumn frost than 
the original shoot. 

This late growth is much more likely to occur 
with young vines than with old. The old vines 
stop growing earlier because their energies are 
directed into the crop, and as they produce a 
larger amount of foliage they draw more upon 
the moisture of the soil, which therefore dries 
out earlier. 

If possible, late growth of the young vines must be prevented 
and the wood matured before frost. This is accomplished by means 
which promote the drying of the soil in autumn. Late irrigations 
should be avoided. Cultivation should usually stop by midsummer. 
In very moist, rich soils it is often an advantage to grow corn, sun- 
flowers or similar crops between the rows of vines to take off the 
surplus moisture. In some cases it is good practice to let the sum- 
mer weeds grow for the same purpose. 




FIG. 285 

GRAPE SPUR 

Letters and lines 

indicate positions 

of good and bad 

cuts (253). 



GRAPE PRUNING AND TRAINING 341 

253. Second winter pruning.— With vines which have heen treated 
as described and to which no accident has liappened, the second 
winter pruning is very simple. It consists simply in cutting back 
the single cane which has been allowed to grow to the height at 
which it is desired to head the vine. 

In all cases a full internode must be left above the top bud. This 
is done by cutting through the first bud above the highest which 
it is desired to have grow. This cut is made in such a way as to 
destroy the bud (Fig. 285), but to leave the diaphragm intact and 
part of the swelling of the node. This upper internode is left partly 
to protect the upper bud, but principally to facilitate tying. By 
making a half-hitch around this internode, the vine is held very 
firmly. If the swelling at the node of the destroyed bud is not left, 
many vines will be pulled out of the hitch when they become heavy 
with leaves and supple with the flow of sap in the spring. 

In tying the vines, no turns or hitches must be made around any 
part except this upper internode. A hitch below the top bud will 
result in a crook-necked vine, as the top wiil bend over in the sum- 
mer under the weight of the foliage. A hitch lower down is even 
more harmful, as it will girdle and strangle the vine. A second tie 
about half way from the upper to the ground is always necessary 
to straighten the cane. Even if the cane is straight when pruned, 
a second tie is needed to keep it from curving under the pressure 
of leaves and wind in the spring. For high-headed vines three ties 
are usually necessary. 

For the top tie, wire is particularly suitable. It holds better than 
twine and does not wear. Even though it is not removed, it does 
no harm, as the part around which it is wound does not grow. The 
lower ties should be of softer material as wire has a tendency to 
cut into the wood. They should be placed so the cane is able to ex- 
pand as it grows. With thin and especially with round stakes this 
means that the tie must be loose. With large, square stakes there 
is usually sufficient room for expansion, even when the twine is 
tied tight. 

However careful the pruner, many of the vines cannot be pruned 
quite so simply as those described. These methods therefore must 
often be modified. Some of the vines may not make a sufficient 
growth of cane to be tied up in the way indicated. They should be 
pruned back again to two buds, as at the previous winter pruning, 
and special care taken during the following summer to develop a 
good cane on each. Vines in w^hich the development of the tying-up 
cane is thus delayed a year will usually make a very vigorous growth 
the following summer. They must be topped. The result at the 
following winter pruning will be a vigorous cane with laterals, 
which should be pruned. All vines which have not made a growth 
of well-developed, mature cane of the length desired should be cut 
back to two buds. This length will usually be at least twice that of 
the desired height of trunk because the upper part of the cane is 
usually badly matured and with imperfect buds. It is bad practice 
to cut canes to intermediate lengths, as this results usually in crooked 



'^-l 



r^. '■,*->,, 



342 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



trunks and inevitably to variations in the height of the heads of 
different vines. 

If the suckering, disbudding and thinning of shoots have been 
neglected, there will be more than one cane on the vine. In this 
case all but the strongest and best placed must be removed and this 
treated like a single cane. Unfortunately the strongest is often not 
the best placed. In fact, if tying up during the summer has been 
neglected it is often the worst placed. The "more vigorous the vine 
the more likely is the position of the canes to be defective. This 
is especially true of grafts on old vines, which should be treated like 
exceptionally vigorous vines during the second growing season. In 




FIG. 286— THREE-YEAR-OLD VINES AFTER PRUNING 
a Average vine with two spurs; b, vigorous vine with three spurs, the lowest to be 
' removed next season; c, vigorous vine with three spurs. 

these cases of neglected vines, the best canes are often lying flat 
on the ground. It will require all the ingenuity and skill of the 
pruner to get them into a more or less erect position. At best they 
will result in crooked, misshapen vines. 

By removing the soil from around the base of the vine the cane 
can often be raised iriore easily and the bend will then be at least 
partially in the underground stem, where it is less harmful. In the 
worst cases it may be impossible to raise a cane. It is then nec- 
essary to cut all the canes back to the old wood and to develop a 



GRAPE PRUNING AND TRAINING 



343 



new cane the next year. Even if the main cane has been tied up, 
the removal at the collar of the vine of the other canes, if they are 
numerous and large, makes many serious wounds, which in some 
cases weaken the vine considerably. 

254. Third summer pruning. — During the third season, average 
well-grown vines will produce their first considerable crop and de- 
velop the canes from which will be formed the first arms. During 
this spring it will be necessary to sucker and remove low shoots at 
least once more. This mav be done when the vines are hoed. If 






FIG. 287— GRAPEVINES OF VARIOUS AGES 

Left, vine in third year pruned by cane system. Middle, vine in fifth year (cane 

system). Right, spur, stool or short system; vine in its fifth year. 

the vines grow vigorously the slioots should be pinched when they 
are 18 to 24 inches long to protect them from the wind. 

255. Third winter pruning.— At the end of the third season's 
growth the vine should have a straight, well-developed trunk with 
near the top several vigorous canes from which to form the arms. 
The pruner should leave enough spurs to supply all the fruit buds 
the vine can utilize. The number, size and thickness of the canes 
show the vigor of the vine. It will depend somewhat on the variety 
how many buds should be left. For a variety whose bunches aver- 
age one pound, and which produces two bunches to the shoot, 12 



344 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 

fruit buds should give about 24 pounds, or about seven tons to the 
acre, if the vines are planted 12 by 6 feet. The number of spurs 
will depend on the length. Six of two buds each will give the re- 
quired number, but where the canes are exceptionally vigorous they 
should be left a little longer, in which case a smaller number of 
spurs will suffice. 

When the number and length of the spurs are decided on, the 
canes should be chosen which will leave these spurs in the most 
suitable position for forming arms. This position will depend on 
whether we want a vase-form or a fan-shaped vine. In the first 
case, we choose those which will distribute the spurs most evenly 
and symmetrically on all sides, avoiding any which cross or point 
downwards ; in the second, only those canes which run in the di- 
rection of the trellis, avoiding canes which stick out between the 
rows. Downward pointing canes may be used in this case. 

It is comparatively easy properly to shape vines which make only 
a moderate growth during the first three seasons. On the other 
hand, very vigorous vines may finally be brought into practically 
perfect shape. The somewhat larger and more numerous wounds 
necessary are more easily healed by a vigorous vine. 

256. Pruning after the third winter. — For the pruner who under- 
stands the pruning of young vines and has brought them to approxi- 
mately the desired form, the subsequent winter pruning is very 
simple. It involves, however, one new idea — the distinction between 
fruit and sterile wood. 

Up to the third winter pruning, this distinction is not necessary ; 
first, because practically all the wood is fruit wood, and second, 
because the necessity of forming the vine controls the choice of 
wood. From this time on, however, this distinction must be care- 
fully made. At each winter pruning spurs of fruit wood must be 
left to produce the crop to be expected from the size and vigor of 
the vine. Besides these fruit spurs, it may be necessary to leave 
spurs of sterile wood to permit of increasing the number of fruit 
spurs the following year. 

Each winter after the third the same process must be followed. 
First, enough fruit spurs, as well placed as possible, must be left 
to produce the crop. Second, on most vines, supplementary spurs 
of sterile wood must be left to supply more arms where they are 
needed, and finally, when the full complement of arms has de- 
veloped, to supply new arms to replace those which have become 
too long or are otherwise defective. 

Sometimes it is difficult to find water sprouts in suitable positions 
for replacing spurs. This may be due to_ weakness of the vines, 
which are able to develop shoots on only the fruit spurs and have 
no surplus vigor to force out dormant buds on the older wood. 
This difficulty may be met by shorter pruning. If an arm is too 
long, and at the same time weak, it should be pruned to extra short 
spurs. This will tend to force water sprouts to start from the older 
wood near the base of the arm. Their absence at the winter prun- 



GRAPE PRUNING AND TRAINING 



345 



ing may also be due to the water sprouts having been removed 
during the summer. When water sprouts are removed the need of 
replacing wood should always be kept in mind, and one vigorous, 
well-placed water sprout left near the base of every long arm. 

257. Fan-shaped vines. — With headed vines, the treatment up to 
the second winter pruning is the same except for the variations in 
the height of the head. At the third winter pruning, however, the 
formation of the head commences, and the pruner determines 
whether it shall be vase-formed or fan-shaped. At the third 
winter pruning, the vine should be pruned to two spurs. More 
vigorous vines should not be given more spurs, but the spurs 
should be made longer, 

with four, five, or even 
six eyes in some cases. 
This is in order to ob- 
tain some fruit, which 
might not be obtained 
from long pruning va- 
rieties by leaving many 
spurs. With extremely 
vigorous vines one fruit 
cane may be left at this 
pruning. The wires of 
the trellis should be put 
up this year, if this has 
not already been done. 

258. Double-h e a d e d 
vines. — Some growers 
attempt to arrange the 
arms of their vines in 
two stages, one above 
the other, forming 
double-headed or two- 
crowned vines. The 
method is applied to 
both vase-formed and 
trellised vines. It is open 
to the same criticisms as 
is the vertical cordon. 
The chief of these is that 
it cannot be maintained 
permanently. The lower 
head or ring of arms 
finally becomes weak 

and fails to produce wood. It is easier to maintain in trellised vine- 
yards and has some advantages, the chief of which is that it is 
easier to keep the vine in the single plane and to prevent arms get- 
ting into the inter-rows. 




FIG. 288 

FORMS OF GRAPEVINE HEAD TRAINING 

a, vertical fruit canes and renewal spurs; b, bowed 

canes and renewal spurs 



346 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 

259. Vertical and bowed canes. — This is a method used commonly 
in many vineyards. The unit of pruning is the same as in the 
method just described, consisting of a fruit cane and a renewal 
spur. The framework of the vine consists of a trunk of medium 
height, with a vase-formed head consisting of three or four arms. 
The defects of this system have been pointed out (246). In the 
hands of skillful pruners it is used with fair success with seedless 
Sultanas and with some wine grapes such as Colombar, Semillon, 
Cabernet and Reisling. The results with Sultanina are very un- 
satisfactory. By this method, on most of the vines, the fruit canes 
start from high up near the middle of the stake, and are therefore 
too short for the best results. The canes which start from low 
down are in most cases suckers, and therefore of little value for 
fruit bearing. 

Figure 288 h shows a vine with bowed canes. The method of 
pruning is exactly the same as in the method just described. The 
bowing of the canes, however, overcomes some of the defects of 
that method. It is used regularly in many wine grape vineyards 
of the cooler regions. It is unsuited for very vigorous vines in 
rich soil. 

260. Vertical cordons. — In head pruning, the treatment of young 
vines up to the second or third winter pruning is identical for all 
systems. In cordon pruning the treatment for the first and second 
is also the same. That is, the vine is cut back to two buds near the 
level of the ground until a cane sufficiently long to serve for the 
formation of the trunk is obtained. 

In the vertical cordon the trunk is 3 to 4 feet long instead of 
1 to 2, as in head pruning. This makes it necessary to have a longer 
and more vigorous cane to start with. It may require a year longer 
to obtain this. That is to say, at the end of the second season's 
growth many vines will not have a single cane sufficiently developed 
to give the necessary 3^ feet of well-ripened wood and properly 
developed buds. At the second winter pruning, therefore, it will 
often be necessary to cut the vine back to two buds, as at the 
first winter pruning. 

Finally, a cane of the required length will be obtained. The vine 
may then be formed as already described for the second wmter 
pruning of headed vines, except that the cane is left longer. This 
cane is then tied to the stake. When such a vine is pruned spurs 
are left at intervals along the trunk. Each of these spurs is a fruit 
spur and is also the commencement of an arm. The future treatment 
of these arms is the same as that of the arms in head pruning. 

261. Horizontal cordons. — During the first two or three years, 
vines to be given the form of horizontal cordons are treated exactly 
as for vertical cordons, that is, they are pruned back to two buds 
each winter and the growth forced by disbudding into a single cane 
during the summer. As soon as a well-ripened cane of the required 
length is obtained, it is tied to a wire stretched horizontally along 
the row at from 15 to 24 inches from the ground. 



GRAI'R I'KIMXG AM) TKAIXIXG 



347 



For this S3'stem of pruning, the rows should be 12 to 14 feet 
apart and the vines C, 7 or 8 feet apart in the rows. As the cordon 
or trunk of each vine should reach the next vine, it will have to be 
6 to 8 feet long. The best shape is obtained when the trunk is all 
formed one year from a single cane. It is necessary, however, some- 
times to take two years for the formation of the trunk. In any case, 
the cane llrst tied down should reach at least half way to the next 
vine. The following year a new cane from the end of this should 
be used to complete the full length of the trunk. In attaching the 
cane to the wire, it must be bent over in a gentle curve and care 
taken not to break or injure it. Sharp ends should be avoided. 

The cane should be placed on top of the wire, not twisted around it. 
The end should be tied firmly and the rest of the cane supported by 
strings tied loosely in order to avoid girdling when the cane grows. 

In the following spring, most of the buds on a good cane will 
start. If the cane is short jointed, some of the shoots should be 




FIG. 289— TREATMENT OF AVERAGE VINE IN THIRD SEASON OR VIGOROUS 

ONE IN SECOND 

a, Vine pruned to one cane and tied to stake; b, removal of suckers (S) and lower 

shoots (W) in spring; c, vine in summer at time of pinchins- 

removed and only those shoots allowed to develop which are con- 
veniently situated for permanent arms. If the vines are to be short 
pruned, the arms should be developed every 8 to 12 inches from a 
few inches beyond the bend to the extreme end. For long pruning, 
the arms should be farther apart, 12 to 20 inches. Shoots starting 



348 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 

from the top of the cane and growing vertically upwards are to be 
preferred. 

As the shoots develop, the strongest should be pinched repeatedly, 
if necessary. This will tend to force the growth of the weaker shoots 
and to equalize the vigor of all. At the end of the season, there 
should be from 5 to 10 canes growing on each cordon of full length. 
These canes are then pruned back to two or three buds, or a little 
longer for long-pruned varieties. 

During the following spring and summer, the vines should be 
carefully suckered and unnecessary water sprouts removed. Any 
shoots coming from the lower side of the cordon should be removed 
early to strengthen the growth in the shoots on the upper side. 
Such vines are apt to become dry or decayed on the upper side. At 
the end of the fourth or fifth year from planting at the latest, the 
cordon will be fully formed and the final style of pruning may be 
applied. 

262. Renovation of imperfect or misshapen vines. — The pruner 
who with definite ideas properly handles his vines from the begin- 
ning can, in most cases, bring them into the required shape with 
comparative ease. Often, perhaps usually, he has to deal with vines 
which have some more or less serious fault. They may be misshapen 
owing to defective pruning, or otherwise imperfect owing to me- 
chanical injuries, or as the result of frost, fungi, or insect pests. If 
the vines are young, the defects can often be overcome and the vine 
given a proper form very easily. 

As the vines become older, it becomes increasingly difficult to 
overcome defects of formation. The disadvantage of a low head 
may be in part avoided by gradually lengthening the arms and giving 
them a more vertical direction. An ill-formed head may be im- 
proved by removing badly placed arms and developing new arms 
where needed. 

The trunks of many old vines are so defective that little improve- 
ment can be obtained by these means. It is possible and occasionally 
profitable completely to renew the trunks of such vines. This may 
be done by developing a new trunk from a strong cane originating 
at or below the surface of the ground and then cutting away the 
old trunk. 

But this method has the same defect as the grafting of old vines; 
leaves a large wound where the old stump was removed, a wound 
which may never heal and which finally allows the entrance of 
wood-rot fungi. Such renewed vines, however, may last as long as 
if the old decayed trunk had been left, perhaps longer. They will 
also be more fruitful and easier to handle properly. The change 
may be made without the loss of a crop, as occurs in grafting. If 
the stumps are large, the expense of sawing them off is considerable. 

263. Choice of a system. — In choosing a systemj we must consider 
carefully the characteristics of the particular variety we are growing. 
A variety which bears only on the upper buds must be pruned "long," 



GRAPE PRUNING AND TRAINING 



349 



that is, must be given fruit canes. It should be noted that many- 
varieties, such as Petite Sirah, which will bear with short pruning 
when grafted on resistant roots require fruit canes when growing 
on their own roots. In general, grafted vines require shorter prun- 
ing than ungrafted. If pruned the same, the grafted vines may- 
overbear and quickly exhaust themselves. This seems to be the 
principal reason for the frequent failure of Muscat vines grafted 
on resistant stock. The cultural conditions also affect the vine in 
this respect. Vines made vigorous by rich soil, abundant moisture, 
and thorough cultivation require longer pruning than weaker vines 
of the same variety. 

The normal size of the bunch is also of importance. This size 
will vary from one-quarter of a pound to two or three pounds. It 
is difificult to obtain a full crop from a variety whose bunches are 
very small without the use of fruit canes. Spurs will not furnish 
enough fruit buds without crowding them inconveniently. On the 
other hand, some shipping grapes may bear larger crops when 
pruned long, but the bunches and berries may be too small for the 
best quality. 

The possibilities of development vary much with various varieties. 
A Mission or Flame Tokay may be made to cover a quarter of an 




FIG. 290— FORMS OF HEAD PRUNING OF GRAPES 

a, Spur pruning with high trunk; b, spur pruning with medium trunk; c, half-long 

pruning with medium trunk. 



acre and develop a trunk 4 or .5 feet in circuinference. A Zinfandel 
vine under the same conditions would not reach a tenth of this size 
in the same time. Vines in a rich valley soil will grow much larger 
than on a poor hillside. The size and shape of the trunk must be 
modihed accordingly and adapted to the available room or number 
of vines to the acre. 



350 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 

The shape must be such as to protect the vine as much as pos- 
sible from various unfavorable conditions. A variety like the Carig- 
nane, susceptible to oidium, must be pruned so fruit and foliage are 
not unduly massed together. Free exposure to light and air is a 
great protection in this respect. The same is true for varieties like 
the Muscat, which have a tendency to "coulure" if the blossoms are 
too moist or shaded. In frosty locations, a high trunk will be a pro- 
tection, as the air is always colder close to the ground. 

The qualities required in the crop also influence our choice of a 
pruning system. Even with wine grapes, perfect ripening and full 
flavor are desirable. These are obtained best by having the grapes 
at a uniform height from the ground and as near to it as possible. 
The same qualities are desirable in raisin grapes, with the addition 
of large size of the berries. With shipping grapes, the size and 
perfection of the berries and bunches are the most essential char- 
acteristics. The vine, therefore, should be so formed that each 
bunch hangs clear, free from injurious contact with canes or soil 
and equally exposed to light and air. 

The maximum returns in crop depend on the early bearing of 
young vines, the regularity of bearing of mature vines and the 
longevity of the vineyard. These are insured by careful attention 
to all the details of pruning, but are possible only when the vines 
are given a suitable form. 

The running expenses of a vineyard depend in a great measure on 
the style of pruning adopted. Vines of suitable form are cultivated, 
pruned and the crop gathered easily and cheaply. This depends also 
both on the form of vine adopted and on care in details. 

It is impossible, therefore, to state for any particular variety or 
any particular location the best style of pruning to be adopted. All 
that can be done is to give the general characteristics of the variety 
and to indicate how these may be modified by grafting, soil or 
climatic or other conditions. The most important characteristics 
of the variety in making a choice of a pruning system is whether it 
normally or usually requires short, half-long, or long pruning. With 
this idea, the principal grapes grown in California, together with all 
those grown at the experiment station on which data exist, have 
been divided into five groups in the following list : 

/. Varieties zvliich require long pruning under all condifio)is. — 
Clairette Blanche, Corinth White and Black, Seedless Sultana, Sul- 
tanina White (Thompson's Seedless) and Rose. 

2. Varieties which usually require long pruning. — Bastardo, Boa! 
de Madeira, Chardonay, Chauche Gris and Noir, Colombar, Crabbe's 
Black Burgundy, Durif, Gamais, Kleinberger, Luglienga, Marsanne, 
Marzemino, Merlot, Meunier, Muscadelle de Bordelais, Nebbiolo, 
Pagadebito, Peverella, Pinots, Rieslings, Robin Noir, Rulander, 
Sauvignon Blanc, Semillon, Serine, Petite Sirah, Slancamenca, Stein- 
schiller, Tinta Cao, Tinta Madeira, Trousseau, V^rdelho, Petit Ver- 
dot, Walchriesling. 



CRATZ PRUNING AND TRAINING 351 

3. Varieties which usually require short pruning. — Aleatico, AH- 
gote, Aspiran, Bakator, Bouschets, Blaue Elbe, Beba, Bonarda, Bar- 
barossa, Catarattu, CharI)i)no, Chasselas, Freisa, Frontignan, Fur- 
mint, Grand Noir, Grosscblaue, Green Hungarian Malmsey, Mantuo, 
Monica, Mission, Moscatello l*"ino, Mourisco Branco, Mourisco Preto, 
Negro Amaro, Palomino, Pedro Zumbon, Perruno, Piz/.utcllo di 
Roma, Black Prince, West's White Prolific, Quagliano, Rodites, 
Rozaki, Tinta Amarclla, Vernaccia Bianca, Vernaccia Sarda. 

4. Varieties which require short pruning under all conditions. — 
Aramon, Burger Chardonay, Chauche Gris and Noir, Colombar, 
Crabbe's Black Burgundy, Durif, Black Morocco, Mourastel, Muscat 
of Alexander, Napoleon, Picpoule Blanc and Noir, Flame Tokay, 
Ugni Blanc, Verdal, Zinfandel. 

5. Varieties of table grapes zvhich usually require^ half-long or 
cordon pruning. — Almeria (Ohanez), Bellino, Bermestia Bianca and 
Violacea, Cipro Nero, Dattier de Beirut, Cornichon, Emperor, Black 
Ferrara, Malaga, Olivette de Cadenet, Pis-de-Chevre Blanc, Schirad- 
zouli, Zabalkanski. 

These lists must not be taken as indicating absolutely for all 
cases how these varieties are to be pruned. They simply indicate 
natural tendencies. Certain methods and conditions tend to make 
vines more fruitful. Where these occur, shorter pruning than is 
indicated may be advisable. On the other hand, other methods and 
conditions tend to make the vines vigorous at the expense of fruit- 
fulness. Where these occur, longer pruning may be advisable. 

The more usual factors which tend toward fruitfulness are: 
Grafting on resistant vines, especially on certain varieties such as 
those of Riparia and Berlandieri; old age of the vines; mechanical 
or other injuries to any part of the vine; large development of the 
trunk, as in the cordon systems. The more usual factors^ which tend 
toward vigor at the expense of fruitfulness are : Richsoil, especially 
large amounts of humus and nitrogen; youth of the vines; excessive 
irrigation or rainfall (within limits). 

In deciding what system of pruning to adopt, all these factors, 
together with the nature of the vine and the uses to which the fruit 
is to' be put, must be considered. It is best when the vineyard^ is 
started to err on the side of short pruning. While this may diminish 
slightly the first one or two crops, the vines will gain in vigor and 
the loss will be made up in subsequent crops. If the style of pruning 
adopted results in excessive vigor of the vines, it should be gradually 
changed in the direction of longer pruning with the object of utiliz- 
ing this vigor in the production of crop. This change should be 
gradual, or the risk will be run of injuring the vitality of the vines 
by one or two excessively heavy crops. 

Finally, each year the condition of the individual vine should de- 
termine the kind of pruning to be adopted. If the vine appears 
weak, from whatever cause, it should be pruned shorter or given 
less spurs or fruit canes than the year before. On the contrary, if 



352 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 

it appears unnecessarily vigorous, more or longer spurs or fruit 
canes should be left. Every vine should be judged by itself. It is 
not possible to give more than general directions for the pruning of 
the whole vineyard. It cannot be well pruned unless the men who 
do the actual pruning are capable of using sufficient judgment to 
modify their methods properly for each individual vine. 

264. Grapes under glass. — Only the European grape is 
grown under glass. Two-year-old vines are planted in- 
side the houses a foot or two from the outer walls, cut 
back to two or three buds and tied to iron brackets at- 
tached to the rafters so the trunks will be not less than 
a foot from the glass. Only the strongest shoot is al- 
lowed to grow. Two systems of pruning are in vogue, 
the spur and the long cane or long rod system. The 
former is perhaps the more popular. 

In the spur system, when the tip reaches the top of 
the house it is pinched. The cane then fills out and 
stores food in lateral buds till the winter sets in, when 
it is cut back two-thirds and covered on the ground until 
spring. Since mice eat the buds they should be kept out 
of the house. In the second spring the canes are tied 
up and the leader shoot trained to the top of the house 
and there pinched. No fruit is allowed to develop on this 
shoot. On the older cane each second lateral on each 
side is removed so the remaining ones may be a foot or 
15 inches apart. This favors even distribution of the 
crop from bottom to top. 

As a partial crop may be gathered the second season 
from the older part of the vine the laterals should carry 
not more than one clusterand should bepinched (217,218) 
at two nodes beyond the cluster. The sub-laterals should 
be pinched when they have developed one or two leaves. 
Just before winter the terminal shoot should be cut about 
half way, the side ones, all but one bud, close to the main 
stem (often within the first quarter inch) and the vines 
covered as before. 

In the third season the pruning and pinching are re- 
peated, the laterals being allowed to bear about a poun4 



GRAPE PRUNING AND TRAINING 3S3 

of grapes to the foot of main cane. After this year the 
only pruning is that of the laterals, the main trunk hav- 
ing reached the top of the house. Mature vines may bear 
two pounds of grapes to the foot, but there is risk of 
overdoing this and having the grapes turn sour before 
getting ripe. Frequent pinching the laterals and sub- 
laterals is essential to success. This w^ork should be done 
while the tips are so small that all the pinchings from a 
vine could be placed in a lady's watch glass and yet not 
fill it ! 

In the long cane system a new cane is annually de- 
veloped from the base of the plant to replace an older 
one. Well-established vines may bear fruit from end to 
end of this cane its first year, but there is more danger 
of breakage than in the spur system. Laterals arc 
pinched as in the spur system. In late autumn the older 
cane may be cut close to the ground if it is thought to 
be failing and the new one laid down as already de- 
scribed. 



CHAPTER XV 
PRUNING ORNAMENTAL SHRUBS AND TREES 

265. Shade trees — those whose flowers are incon- 
spicuous — rarely receive the attention they deserve. They 
are planted and left to themselves with the result that 
they develop Y-crotches, limbs too near the ground (Fig. 
292) or too high up, or too irregular or other faults. The 
same principles used to form the heads of fruit trees will 
apply with more or less modification to the development 
of shade tree heads. The results of neglect apparent on 
every hand are especially noticeable when winter storms 
load the branches with heavy coatings of ice. One of 
these storms recently more or less seriously broke several 
score of shade trees, principally Norway maples, on the 
campus of the Pennsylvania State College. Several trees 
with Y-crotches were thus broken down ; and many 
others were cracked so severely that another such storm 
will break them because of the activity of decay that has 
gamed entrance through the cracks then formed or e.K- 
tended from previous splitting. Figure 94 shows a char- 
acteristic view on the campus just after the storm. The 
beauty of this tree has been ruined. 

Beyond the removal of dead, dying and broken parts 
and the occasional shortening of too rampant or too low- 
hanging branches, shade trees properly started demand 
very little pruning. The time required to give the trees 
an annual inspection will be well spent, for it should 
lead to the adoption of measures that will prevent in- 
juries which if incurred might be inefifective and ex- 
pensive. 

266. A good hedge depends for its success upon the 
kind of plant, the thickness of the planting, the choice of 
form, the regular periodic attention and, to a less extent, 

354 



PRUNING ORNAMENTAL SIIRUr.S AND TREKS 355 

the environmental factors, such as soil, climate, etc. Un- 
less the plant be adapted to the style of training, unless a 
sufiicient number of plants be properly set, and unless 
the necessary periodic attention be given, the hedge will 
be a more or less gruesome eyesore. 

There is no use trying to make erect-growing species 
of plants develop flat-topped hedges nor in trying to force 
plants that normally spread to adopt an erect style of 
growth. The rule in all hedge growing should be to ap- 
proach as nearly as possible the natural form of the 
plant. To the author's way of thinking the hedge that 
demands the least pruning attention is the one that will 
give most pleasure. 

The Japanese barberry is most nearly ideal for a hedge 
up to 6 or 8 feet high ; arbor vit?e for those 10 to 20 feet ; 
and Norway spruce and hemlock for taller ones. When 
these are allowed to grow naturally they, none of them, 
require more attention than the shortening of occasional, 
rampant branches ; but when forced to assume unnatural 
forms they give no end of trouble, besides being un- 
sightly. 

Unless a hedge is kept uniform and even in height, 
thickness and development its beauty will be impaired. 
To attain this development the plants must be set very 
closely and be pruned intelligently several times a year — 
once in winter and two or three times during the grow- 
ing season. When a definite form is decided upon at the 
start, very little pruning must be done at any one time. 
The form best adapted to plants of more or less erect 
habit is that of an inverted V with perhaps a slight flat- 
tenmg of the apex and a bulging of the sides. The reason 
is that such a form permits all of the branches, even the 
lowest, an opportunity to secure light, whereas in the in- 
verted U and the erect-sided, flat-topped styles the lower 
branches become more shaded as the plants grow older. 
The result is that the lower limbs of such hedges die and 
thus seriously injure the appearance of the whole place. 



356 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 

No hedge will continue to look well or to thrive on 
only one pruning a year, and that in the winter. Shoots 
will develop a heavy growth which will give the hedge 
a frightened, ragged appearance, and the longer this prac- 
tice is followed the worse will be the results and the 
harder to make proper correction. In addition to the 
winter pruning the new growths should be sheared in 




FIG. 291— HORSE CHESTNUT CO-TERMINAL BLOOM BUD EXPANDING 

Notice, 1, that the direction of growth has been slightly changed near the base 
of the new growth where a scar indicates that a fruit was borne in a previous 
season; 2, the annual growth rings at the bottom of the picture; 3, the opposite 
leaves and the terminal cluster of bloom buds. 



PRUNING ORNAMENTAL SHRUB'^ AND TREES 



357 



summer two or throe times whenever their cleveh)i)ment 
seems to demand such attention. 

In America hedges are going out of fashion as stock 
fences, mainly because they make unnecessary demands 
upon the soil and because many of them (osage orange 
especially) are breeders of insects injurious to fruit trees. 
Where they are still planted for such purposes, the plants 
are sometimes pleached while 
still pliable so as to make them 
more difficult to get through. 
To get best results from this 
method the plants are set ob- 
liquely in the soil and the pri- 
mary stems compelled to grow at 
this angle — usuallyabout45de- 
grees. The new shoots that 
develop may then be trained 
•either at right angles to the 
stems which bear them or be 
allowed to grow erect — that is, 
at right angles to level ground. 
In either case the secondary 
branches cross the original stems 
and form a mesh, more especially 
near the bottom, through which 
even pigs cannot force their way. 
Perhaps the honey locust is the 
most popular plant for this kind 
of hedge. 

267. Ornamental shrubs and trees. — Pruning orna- 
mental shrubs and trees for other purposes than to pro- 
mote the formation of flower beds may be done at any 
time, preferably in early spring or early summer, since 
wounds heal better during the growing season than if 
made in fall or printer. All that is necessary in pruning 
for form is to restrain the too rampant growth of some 
parts so as to make the bush symmetrical. Such pruning 




FIG. 292— SHADE TREE 
HEADED TOO LOW 
Each of the three lowest limbs 
should be cut, because they will 
interfere with traffic later. 



358 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



does not imply that the specimen shall be clipped or 
sheared into some artificial shape. It means merely keep- 
ing the plant within bounds, but allowing it perfect free- 
dom within those limits. In all such pruning it must be 
remembered that each shrub has its own peculiar beauty 
— an individuality which should be retained. No pruning 
which destroys this beauty should be practiced, at least 

where there is no defi- 
nite reason for so doing 
— and such cases are 
rare. 

When it is necessary 
to compel the plants to 
take fantastic forms, the 
young growths must be 
sheared several times 
during the growing 
season, as well as once 
during late winter or 
early spring, as in the 
case of hedges. When 
exceptionally good foli- 
age is desired it is neces- 
sary to cut back the 
annual growths rather 
freely toward spring so 
as to encourage the for- 
mation of wood (83). 
When flowers are sought, special note must be made of 
the blossom-bearing habit of the plant. A few funda- 
mental rules will aid the pruner to make a success of this 
kind of work. When sturdy branches are pinched or 
clipped back during summer the remaining wood will 
ripen much more fully than might be the case if they 
were allowed to grow naturally. So the parts should 
stand the winter better than if unpruned. This applies 
more especially to semi-hardy and tender trees and 




FIG. 293— HUGE WOUND WELL MADE 
There is no excuse for such enormous 
wounds as this. Had the limb been cut off 
when the tree was small such a cut could 
have been avoided ! The limb was so low 
it interfered with traffic. Hence its removal. 
The knife shown is 6^ inches long. Notice 
that the wound is healing most rapidly from 
the sides. 



PRUNING ORNAMENTAL SHRUBS AND TREES 



359 



shrubs. Summer pinching or clipping is of special use 
during wet seasons and when the plants arc over-supplied 
with nitrogenous plant food, both of which tend to pro- 
duce lush growths, which continue to develop late in the 
season, but do not ripen fully before winter sets in. Such 
wood being succulent is sure to be killed during winter. 
It also tends to keep the trees and shrubs low-headed 
and to develop fruit buds, as already noted. 




FIG. 294— HOW TO FORCE PEACH BUDS TO DETERMINE THEIR CONDITION 
The twigs are placed in water in a warm room during late winter. Twigs from 
trees that had made a large growth one summer because of having been headed 
back severely in the spring of the previous year gave only 28.3 per cent of bloom 
when forced thus in December, while trees which made a smaller growth (not 
headed back) gave 44.3 per cent. This shows that the resting period ends earlier 
on trees making smaller growth. 

268. When ornamentals form blossom buds.— 'Shrubs 
and trees which bloom in the spring develop their flowers 
from resting buds formed during the previous summer. 
As in the case of fruit trees the buds are protected by va- 
rious devices, such as thickened, woolly and waxy bud 
scales. The fact that the flowers are in rudimentary 
form and are ready to open under favorable conditions 
may be proved by placing twigs of "pussy" willow, peach 
(Fig. 294), forsythia (Fig. 295) and other very early 



360 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



bloomers in water in a warm room during winter. In a 
few days to a few weeks the buds will burst into bloom. 

The first rule of pruning flowering shrubs and trees is 
based on this habit of bloom production. If the branches 
are cut back severely in autumn, winter or early spring, 
a large proportion of the blossom buds will thus be de- 
stroyed. In cases of severest cutting few or no flowers 

may be produced, 
partly because of 
their removal and 
partly because the 
bush or tree will 
make an .effort to 
develop new wood 
(81. 83). 

The converse of 
this practice is the 
cor rect method; 
namely, pruning im- 
mediately after the 
blossoming season 
haspassed. Thusthe 
new shoots produced 
will have thebalance 
of the season in'which 
to develop new shoots 
largely from buds 
near the bases of the 
branches, and upon 
these shoots abun- 
dance of blossom 
buds will form and make a splendid display the following 
spring. 

Shrubs and trees of the second group — althjea, hy- 
drangea, clematis, elder and certain roses — which bloom 
in summer and autumn, form their blossom buds on 
growths of the present season. Since some of these are 




FIG. 295— GOLDEN BELL— FORSYTHIA 

One of the earliest spring blooming shrubs. 
Note that the branch buds are only just starting. 
In some cases they are opposite the flowers, in 
others terminal, and in still others opposite each 
other near the terminal buds. Several flowers 
were cut from each of these twigs so the details 
would show in the picture. 




FIG. 296— CO-TERMINAL METHOD OF BLOOM BEARING— WEIGELIA 

The over-wintering buds develop short shoots in spring and these bear the blossoms. 

Contrast with Judas tree (Fig. 297). 



362 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



tender to frost, some pruners leave them untouched until 
spring, others give a preliminary pruning in the fall, 
protect the plants with mulches and give the final prun- 
ing in spring when the winterkilled stubs may be cut off. 
This encourages the development of 
strong and numerous shoots which bear 
abundance of flowers in due season. 

To sum up the thought in the pre- 
ceding paragraphs, the general rule for 
both cases mav be expressed in three 
words: PRUNE AFTER FLOWER- 
ING. This means that, for flowers, the 
spring-blooming subjects should be 
pruned within a week of the fall of the 
blossoms ; in the case of the summer 
bloomers, that the work may be done 
either in the autumn or at latest just 
before growth starts in the spring. 

Plants properly pruned when trans- 
planted, given good soil and sufficient 
food to make them grow well, and 
ample space in which to develop into 
good forms often need some pruning 
other than that already described ; 
namely, they may need to have their 
interiors opened up to admit light and 
air. This may usually be done by cut- 
ting out old center stems. Of course, 
any dead or dying wood should also be 
removed as soon as noticed. Except 
for such work, little more may be 
necessary than the occasional repres- 
sion of a rampant growth. 

269. Evergreens. — With respect to 
evergreens, the one rule to bear in 
mind is : Postpone pruning until the 
spring, since the danger from drying- 




FIG. 297 — RED BUD 

Blossom buds of 
the Judas tree or red 
bud (C e r c i s) are 
borne almost sessile 
on the branches in 
spring before the leaf 
buds have expanded 
to any extent. What 
folly to prune any but 
dead wood out of such 
a tree after midsum- 
mer I 



PRUNING ORNAMENTAL SHRUBS AND TREES 363 

x.at is greater than in the case of deciduous subjects. 
March is perhaps the best month in which such pruning- 
should be done in the southern half of the northern 
hemisphere, and April in the northern half, because 
growth is usually strong during the next six to eight 
weeks and the healing of wounds will progress rapidly. 



CHAPTER XVI 
DWARF TREE PRUNING AND TRAINING 

270. Dwarf trees, those small growing varieties of a 
species, are considered desirable mainly because they 
require less space than do the normal-sized ones. There 
is no difficulty in maintaining dwarfness in the dwarf 
varieties — those that are dwarf by nature. They simply 
do not grow larger than their normal size and, there- 
fore, do not require special treatment to keep them small. 
But there is another group — the plants that must be 
specially handled to make them dwarf in the first place 
and then specially handled to keep them small. The 
most extreme cases of this kind are produced by special 
cultural methods practiced by the Japanese, who compel 
trees which in nature attain considerable size to grow 
for many years in flower pots far smaller than would be 
required to hold the roots of a plant of the same species 
if transplanted from the open ground at the close of even 
its first growing season. The methods by which this is 
done, however, do not concern us here, as they are cul- 
tural rather than dependent upon pruning. 

The plants that do concern us are those individuals 
which normally grow large but which, by means of graft- 
age, top and root pruning are compelled to be small to 
suit our convenience or caprice. In order to understand 
how these should be handled to keep them small, it may 
be well to quote the following paragraphs from the au- 
thor's book, "Plant Propagation."* 

Dwarfing trees to be grown in the open requires that cions or 
buds be worked on slow-growing stocks and later headed-in. 
Plants may also be dwarfed by growing them in confined quarters, 
such as boxes, tubs and pots too small for their normal development. 
Nurserymen can go no further than supplying the specimens ; after- 

* Page 195. 



DWARF TREE PRUNING AND TRAINING 365 

care depends upon the grower, who by neglect or ignorance may 
develop standards from those intended to be dwarfs. 

When grafted or budded "dwarfs" are planted so deeply that 
roots are developed by the cion above the union with the stock, the 
tree will become "half dwarf" or even "standard." Such roots 
must be cut off from time to time as they develop. Dwarf cherries 
are grown on mahaleb stocks, but so is probably the majority of 
standard cherry trees. Annual removal of roots from the cion and 
heading-in will keep the trees dwarf in habit. So, too, of plums 
upon myrobalan, and apples upon Paradise and Doucin stocks. 

Grafting or budding" on a slow-growing variety or 
species, then, is only the first step toward the making of 
dwarf trees. The trees must have the expanse of their 
tops restricted by pruning and training. The expanse of 
their roots must also be restricted by pruning or by 
keeping them confined in limited space. 

Root pruning (87) to restrict growth is little practiced 
in America. Our tillage methods largely replace it be- 
cause they compel deep rooting. In the growing of 
dwarf trees and grafted grapevines it finds its most im- 
portant application in the removal of roots which develop 
from the cion above the union with the stock. 

Top pruning of dwarf trees is done to train the tree 
in some special M^ay and to restrict growth. The latter 
is a winter practice for the most part — heading back 
(106). Various factors influence the amount of such 
work — age, vigor, variety, individuality of tree, etc. A 
terminal growth of 20 to 30 inches is common in the 
upper parts of dwarf pear and apple trees, especially in 
those under, say, ten years old. Some good pruners cut 
oflf 50 to 80 per cent of the annual growth all over the 
tree; and also remove inferior twigs entirely; others cut 
out a total of fully as much wood, but include a good deal 
of older wood, their idea being thus to keep the tree with- 
in bounds rather than to run the risk of getting too many 
small stubby twigs as might be the case were the former 
method followed too closely. In the former case the tree 
is more likely to grow too large than in the latter. In 
either case the lateral growth that develops on the in- 



366 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 

terior of the tree during the following season must be 
thinned at the next pruning. 

Pruning for form will depend upon the pruner's ideal 
(2). Dwarf trees, however, are generally grown as flat- 
topped inverted cones or as pyramids. In America the 
former is the more popular; in Europe, the latter. To 
secure the pyramidal form a central stem is developed to 
the desired height. The branches are produced, as in the 
training of standard pyramids (154b), except that they are 
closer together. The author does not happen to know of 
vase-formed or open-centered dwarf trees, but he sees 
no reason why this form should not be as desirable for 
dwarf pears as for standards. 

While the trees are young the pyramidal form is easy 
to get, especially with pears which normally grow in this 
way. As the trees grow older, however, particularly if 
the grower neglects to prune off the cion roots, they are 
prone to grow very tall, their form in long-neglected trees 
much resembling that of the Lombardy poplar, though, 
of course, much smaller than the full-grown trees of this 
species. This heightening may be easily prevented, first 
by cion root pruning and second, by extending the frame 
limbs and broadening the top, thus developing the in- 
verted cone shape. In the most famous commercial 
dwarf pear orchard the author has visited the trees were 
only about 12 feet high, though they were then half a 
century old. If they ever got any taller it was after the 
death of Mr. T. G. Yeomans, the owner, who took special 
pride in keeping them in ideal form and stature. Since 
the Yeomans's orchard* was trained in the ideal form for 
American commercial dwarf pear growing, and since it 
is the one with which the author is most familiar the fol- 
lowing description and comment are given : 

* This orchard at Walworth, New York, was cut down in 1906 by the then 
owner of the Yeomans's farm, and Kieffer pears planted on the site, because he 
thought the trees had passed their profitable age limit and he believed the Kieffer 
would pay better. The original orchard began to yield paying crops before the war 
of the States, and continued to do so as long as Mr. Yeomans lived. 



invARi' tri:e pruning and training 367 

l"'irst of all, dccisie^n in the choice of trees was against 
one-year stock because two-year-old dwarf pear trees 
give better results. One-year trees have only a single erect 
shoot 3 to perhaps 5 feet tall. If transplanted at this age 
and the top cut back severely as it should be to bal- 
ance the loss of roots, the tree will be so weakened that 
fewer buds (perhaps only two or three) will develop 
branches, and these in the most undesirable position, the 
top of the stem, both on one side, or practically opposite 
each other in Y-crotch form. The other buds will remain 
latent and useless. By properly handling one-year trees 
in the nursery without digging and then allowing them 
to grow a second season a full complement of branches 
may be developed. This Mr. Yeomans was able to do to 
perfection because he was in the nursery business and 
grew his own trees from grafts he made himself. As 
good trees, however, may be bought from leading nurs- 
erymen. 

In the nursery the one-year trees had the tops of their 
shoots cut at 21 to 24 inches so as to have a short, 
straight, smooth trunk, and of about 12 inches from the 
ground up to the first branch. The buds on this lower 
part of the stem were not permitted to develop shoots, 
(rrowths which started from them were rubbed ofif as 
early as possible. Above the disbudded part six or eight 
plump buds usually developed branches, because all the 
root surface was intact and there was plenty of sap to 
make good growth. In the fall the tree resulting from 
such treatment would be sturdy, have plenty of branches 
to choose from, be of good shape and in every respect 
desirable. 

Y-crotches, which usually form in the two uppermost 
branches, were avoided by pinching the twig next to the 
top when it attained a length of 8 to 10 inches (127). 
Thus the uppermost branch became the leader and the 
second a side branch. 



368 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 

When transplanted the trees were two years old from 
the bud, had been cut back in the nursery row at one year, 
had formed half a dozen or more good branches without 
any Y-crotches and had excellent root systems. In 
pruning at planting time the uppermost twigs were cut 
back most severely, the lowest ones least because growth 
is greatest in the upper part of the trees (91). Only two 
buds were left on the leader and the next branch or two, 
while four or five were left on the lowest. This treatment 
brought the leader down to within 4 or 5 inches of its 
base (the two-year wood). 

The cut on the leader was made so that the upper bud 
was immediately above the cut end of the previous year's 
stem. Because of the slight crooks formed by a side bud 
when so forced into growth (Fig. 66) the new branch 
from this upper bud was developed vertically above the 
original trunk of which it thus became an extension, but 
with two slight crooks. These crooks disappeared in a 
few years and the trunk looked perfectly straight. In a 
similar way branches too horizontal were slightly raised 
by pruning back to upper buds, or lowered by pruning to 
buds beneath. Others were moved to the side by prun- 
ing to side buds (120d), 

When finished, the branches formed pyramids with 
bases a foot to 15 inches across and 18 to 20 high for the 
larger specimens. By cutting in this way not only was 
the pyramidal form secured, but the lower branches were 
favored and the upper ones checked in developmnt. Un- 
less this is done at the time of setting out, the trees can 
never be made to take the desired form. 

Pruning after the first year resembles that of the first. 
The leader is cut back severely so its upper bud will be 
above and in continuation of the main stem, and the lower 
and side shoots cut back less and less as the base of the 
pyramid is approached. As the trees approached ma- 
turity, care was taken to admit light and air by judicious 
thinning and removal of the interior shoots. Except the 



1 



DWARF TREE PRUNING AND TRAINING 369 

first pruning at planting time, the annual cutting was 
done during the dormant season at any time before 
growth started in the spring. 

As the trees became aged — 15 to 25 years — the method 
of pruning gradually flattened and broadened the tops, 
and the nature of growth gradually lessened wood pro- 
duction below, so that, when the author saw them, each 
tree was like an equilateral triangle set on its apex with 
its trunk as a pedestal. The tops were 10 or 12 feet 
across, and the height, including the trunk, about 12 feet. 
The result was that the top of the orchard looked as if 
cut with a huge lawn mower, it was so even in height and 
the trees so wide-spreading as almost to present a con- 
tinuous carpet of green, except for narrow blank spaces 
between the trees and in the centers between the squares 
formed by each four trees. In the handling of dwarf 
apples, cherries and other fruits the same general rules 
apply. 

Because of considerable agitation on the part of certain 
fruit growers and nurserymen, the fruit growers' associa- 
tions of New York requested the experiment station at 
Geneva to conduct experiments in the growing of such 
trees in orchards of commercial size. An experiment was 
therefore carried out during ten years in three different 
parts of the state and the findings reported in Bulletin 406 
of the station. In the main the report is unfavorable to 
dwarf apple trees as a business proposition. 

271. Pruning dwarf apples.— We may as well confess, writes 
U. P. Hedrick concerning these experiments, that the pruning of 
these trees has been most unsatisfactory. A bad start was made, 
as the trees, for the most part, were cut to whips at transplanting 
time. No doubt, in the light of later experience, it would have been 
better to grow them in nursery rows a year longer and then make 
the start toward forming the heads (270). The trouble in cutting a 
whip at transplantingtime is that branches fail to break forth as 
abundantly as they do in the nursery row unchecked by transplanting. 

Surnmer pruning, supplementing winter pruning, is part of the 
recognized .yearly treatment of dwarf trees. The more it is desired 



370 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 

to restrict the growth, the greater the need of summer pruning 
and the greater the amount necessary. There is, however, much 
divergence of opinion as to methods in summer pruning. Scarcely 
any two authorities on growing dwarf trees agree as to the amount 
of wood to be taken out or the proper time to do the work. 

Some growers use the knife and shears, while others say that 
pinching back with finger and thumb suffices. All agree that the 
practice must be largely regulated by season, soil, health of tree, 
age of tree and the variety. The difficulties in the way of laying 
down rules that would be fair in this comparative test of 26 va- 
rieties of apples on three stocks, three distinct soils and in three 
somewhat difi'erent climates, are patent to anyone who has tried 
to prune in the summer. 

The winter pruning of the trees, though more difficult than in 
training standard trees, gave comparatively little trouble. It con- 
sisted of cutting out crossed branches, surplus branches and, of 
course, such few as were, injured or diseased. It was necessary 
to head back the wood on Paradise and Doucin trees more severely, 
depending upon the variety rather than on the standards, otherwise 
the pruning was much the same on all. 

For the first two seasons but little summer pruning was attempted, 
the trees being small and none too vigorous. Then began a series 
of experiments, no one of which proved satisfactory. Suffice to 
say, in the light of ten seasons' work with dwarf apples, the train- 
ing of the plants is the most difficult and the least satisfactory 
operation in growing these trees. Indeed, it is hardly too much to 
say that if dwarf apples must be headed back or pinched in during 
the growing season, it is impossible to grow them in the trying 
climate of New York. 

In no one of the attempts at summer pruning have we been able 
wholly to avoid weak, spindling second growths which would not 
mature and succumb to the cold of the next winter. When it 
was thought that reasonable success in time and manner of summer 
pruning had been attained one season, sooner or later identical 
treatment proved a failure because of some decided difference in 
weather when the work was repeated. We have been forced to con- 
clude that the great variations in temperature and moisture in the 
summer and the cold winters in New York almost or quite debar 
the summer pruning practiced in the Old World. 



CHAPTER XVTI 
ODD METHODS OF PRUNING AND TRAINING 

The principles and some of the practices discussed in 
previous chapters find bizarre application in special 
modes of training, which in America have practically no 
commercial use. Hence almost the only attention they 
attract is that of amateurs, in which class of gardeners is 
included those wealthy people who take pleasure growing 
extra choice specimens of fruit, especially if these are 
produced under glass, upon walls, or by specimen plants 
trained in some unusual form. 

While these forms are immensely popular in Europe 
where land is costly and hand labor cheap, they are not 
suited to other continents where land is cheap and labor 
high priced, as in America. This is the sufficient answer 
for their comparative rarity in the United States and 
Canada. Let it be said, however, that we have in the 
longer-settled parts of our country examples of these 
methods which compare favorably with those of the Old 
World. Probably a majority of these have been de- 
veloped under the skillful fingers of some French, English 
or Scotch gardener who has served his apprenticeship in 
the gardens of an estate in the Old World. The three 
illustrations (Figs. 298, 299, 300) are excellent examples 
of special tree training in gardens in Rochester, N. Y. 
In the vicinity of Boston, New York and Philadelphia 
could be found many others. 

In order to make a success of any of these special forms 
of growing trees and shrub4, it is essential to make a 
proper start. European nurserymen do this. They grow 
the trees two, three or more years under the constant 
watchfulness of men skilled each in his own line. All 
that a customer need to do, then, is to order the style, 

371 



ODD METHODS OF PRUNING AND TRAINING 2>7Z 

age and variety of plant he wants. In America the de- 
mand for such plants is so nearly nil that the nurserymen, 
with rare exceptions, do not carry any such trees in stock. 
]\Iany of them, however, will develop such plants to order. 
But why should the amateur not develop them himself? 
He can probably command at least as good skill and in 
many cases far better at home because of personal in- 
terest in the plants. How shall he start? 

It will be well whenever possible to do the propaga- 
tion at home, so as to have the plants under ideal condi- 
tion from the start. In perhaps no case should trees older 
than one year be chosen for any of these special forms 
of training. If the trees have been propagated at home, 
they need not suffer in the least from digging because 
they may be left during the second year where they grew 
the first. Note the reasons for this under the heading 
Dwarf Trees (270). Where it is not convenient to follow 
this suggestion, the next best thing is to buy yearling 
trees. Choice should be made among the medium-sized, 
well-grown specimens, the large and the small-sized 
grades being avoided for obvious reasons. The main 
reason for choosing yearling trees is that the buds on 
the trunk will be far sturdier than on trunks two years 
old or older and the branches may be developed exactly 
where wanted. 

The height to have the trunk and the number of 
branches to develop will depend upon the style of training 
to be followed. In all such training it must be re- 
membered that the tree is being forced to develop in a 
more or less unnatural way and, therefore, must receive 
special attention. To use an illustration, these methods 
are like teaching school children to write : a beautiful 
script specimen is set before them and they attempt to 
imitate the pretty writing, often with ludicrous though 
unintentional caricatures ! If it is difficult to teach in- 
telligent children so simple a feat as writing, how much 
more to train a tree in the way it should go ! Success 



374 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



as in the above case is measured by the approach to the 
original design. While the style of training must be 
optional with the individual gardener the fundamental 
principles of pruning must be followed. 

As American literature on these special modes of train- 
ing is very meager, and as European writings are both 
voluminous and excellent, the following passages have 
been culled, mainly from French and English works, to 




FIG. 299— DWARF PEAR TREES TRAINED IN SIMPLE WAY 



ODD METHODS OF PRUNING AND TRAINING 375 

serve as suggestions of forms and methods that may be 
followed. In these excerpts the following words need 
definition: Cordon, a plant consisting of one shoot, or 
two trained opposite to each other, and bearing fruit 
spurs. A palmette is a single vertical stem with several 
side branches. Standard, in European usage, is a solitary 
trunk not attached to a support. It is not a synonym 
of dwarf, as in America. Espalier, a trellis or any plant 
grown upon a trellis, not a form of training. The modes 
of training described below enable the gardener to adapt 
trees to restricted quarters, to have each main branch sup- 
plied with bearing wood from end to end, to equalize 
fruit-bearing each year and each successive year, and to 
enhance both size and quality of fruit. 

272. General principles of training. — Alphonse Du Breuil* gives 
the following general principles for training fruit trees on walls 
and trellises. The numbers indicate individual corollaries under the 
main principles printed in italics. 

A. The permanency of fnrm of trained trees is dependent upon 
the equal diffusion of sap being maintained throughout the whole 
extent of the branches. 

1. Prune strong branches short; but allow weaker ones to grow 
long. 2. Depress strong parts, and elevate weak ones. 3. Suppress 
useless buds on strong parts as early as possible. Practice sup- 
pression as late as possible on leaf parts. 4. Suppress herbaceous 
extremities on strong parts very early, but practice suppression 
as late as possible on weak parts, taking off only the most 
vigorous shoots and those that must be removed because of the 
position they occupy. 5. Nail up strong parts very early .md 
very close to the wall or the trellis, but delay doing so to 
weak parts. 6. Suppress several leaves on strong sides tof the 
plant]. 7. Allow as large a quantity of fruit as possible to remain 
on the strong side and suppress all on the weak side. 

8. Soften green parts on the weak side with sulphate of iron 
solution — 24 grains in a pint of water, applied after sunset. [This 
is believed to stimulate leaf activity "in drawing sap from the roots." 
M. G. K.] 9. Bring weak side forward from the wall ; keep strong 
side close to it. 10. Place a covering on a strong part to deprive it 
of light. 

B. Sap develops branches much, more vigorously on a branch cut 
short than on one left long (Chapter X, io6). C. Sap has always 
a tendency to flow toward the extremities of branches and to make 
terminal buds develop more vigorously than lateral ones (91). 

* The Scientific and Profitable Culture of Fruit Trees, English edition. 



ODD METHODS OF PRUNING AND TRAINING 377 

D. The more sup circulation is retarded the less wood and the 
viore fruit buds Zi'ill develop (9^). 

1. Apply to branches which grow from successive extensions of 
wood and also to those which spring from them, operations calcu- 
lated to diminish vigor. 2. Apply to larger branches several Girard- 
in's side grafts — cions of fruit spurs or fruit buds set into twigs — 
to absorb part of the superabundant sap. 3. Arch all branches so 
part of their extent will be toward the sun. 4. In Feljruary make 
an annular incision 1-5 inch wide with a hand saw near the stem 
base, and deep enough to penetrate the exterior wood layer (98). 
5. In spring uncover the tree collar so as to expose the principal 
roots for several feet and allow them to remain thus during sum- 
mer. 6. In spring cut away parts of roots and replace the earth. 
[These two practices are antagonistic. — M. G. K.] 7. Transplant 
trees in late autumn, but with great care to preserve all roots. 

E. Every method tvhieh conduces to diminish vigor of wood and 
to make sap flow to the fruit tends to augment sice of fruit. 

1. Graft upon stocks of a less vigorous species than the cions. 
2. Apply suitable winter pruning; that is, do not leave on the trees 
more branches or parts of branches than is requisite for symmetrical 
development and formation for fruit-bearing branches. 3. Make 
fruit spurs grow close on branches by pruning them as short as 
possible. 4. Cut branches very close when flower buds are forme-'. 
.5. Mutilate summer shoots by repeatedly pinching off those not 
required to develop size of tree. 6. When fruits are a fifth developed 
suppress a further number of them. 7. Make an annular incision 
about 1-5 inch wide upon the fruit-bearing branches when these 
expand their blossoms. 8. Insert Girardin's side grafts in some fruit 
branches of vigorous trees. 9. Place supports under fruits during 
growth to prevent stretching or twisting of their stalks. If unsup- 
ported, the fruit may grow unequally and the stretching or twisting 
stalk may injure the sap vessels. When fruits are supported they 
grow larger. 10. Keep fruits in their normal position during the 
entire period of their development ; that is, with the fruit stem 
lowermost. Sap acts with more force when it flows upward ; a 
vertical stalk therefore causes it to ascend more easily and the fruit 
will become larger. 11. Place fruit under the leaves during their 
growth to increase their size. 12. Apply to young fruits a solution 
of sulphate of iron (272 A 8) only when the fruit is cool. Repeat 
three times : When fruits are one-fourth grown ; when a little larger ; 
and again when three parts grown. 13. To increase size inarch a 
small shoot on the fruit spur, to which fruit is attached when a third 
grown. 

E. The yearly extensions of wood should be shortened more or 
less, as file branches af^proach a vertical line, or tne contrary. 

273. Construction of walls and fences. — J. Cheal* gives some ex- 
cellent advice upon the construction of walls and fences upon which 

* Practical Fruit Culture, London. 



378 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 

to train fruit trees. Paragraphs (273 to 278) are quoted from liis 
work. The arrangement and position of walls will depend on the 
size and the nature of the surroundings, etc., but they should always 
be arranged, if possible, in a square, with the principal wall facing 
south, or as nearly so as practicable. Where it is possible, place the 
walls so the outside as well as the inside borders may be used for 
fruit, thus making use of the whole wall space. Bear in mind that 
upon the north side many useful fruits may be grown. 

The height of the walls should be 8 to 15 feet, according to cir- 
cumstances. In most cases the south wall may be lower, to admit 
more sunshine into the garden ; and in the case of large gardens, 
one or more cross walls may also be introduced. They should be 
built without piers. Architects have generally a great fancy for 
piers, and in many instances insist upon having them ; but walls can 
be built without them, and they are always a great difficulty and 
nuisance to the gardener. They frequently interfere with the ar- 
rangement of the trees when planting. In training they are a great 
trouble, and often cause much damage to the trees. Provide a good 
permanent coping of tiles or stone, projecting at least 6 inches from 
the face of the wall. These should in all cases be provided inde- 
pendently of any further coping for the protection of the trees at 
the time of flowering. 

274. Removable glass copings are very useful for peaches, nec- 
tarines and apricots. These are required for only a few weeks in 
spring, at the time of blossoming and setting the fruit, and should be 
removed when no longer required. Fixed glass copings are very 
objectionable, as they keep off all rain, encourage red spider and 
other vermin, and necessitate constant syringing. 

In all cases it is a great saving of labor to wire the walls or 
fences. The vines should be placed in lines not exceeding 9 inches 
apart and 2 inches from the wall. Galvanized hold-fasts, tighteners 
and all needful appliances are easily obtainable. 

275. Tying to the wire is much more quickly done than nailing to 
the wall, and does not afford the same shelter to insect pests, while 
it preserves the wall from injury due to constant nailing, and allows 
the wood to ripen more thoroughly and evenly. The branches are 
also enabled to form fruit spurs and buds all around. Frequently 
the inside or back blossoms escape injury from frost, which damages 
the outer ones, and a crop is thereby saved. 

In the case of all fruits, however, and especially that of peaches 
and nectarines, it is needful to be very careful in tying in order to 
prevent the branch coming immediately in contact with the gal- 
vanized wire. Many instances have occurred of disease and decay 
resulting from this. There is, however, no danger if the precaution 
is always taken in tying to cross the tie between the branch and the 
wire, so the branch may be held firmly in position without coming 
in actual contact with the wire. And the danger may be still further 
lessened by painting the wires and hold-fasts after fixing. 



ODD METHODS OF PRUNING AND TRAINING 379 

276. Espalier fences generally may be placed to advantage in a 
kitchen garden, as they occupy but little space, and produce an 
abundance of fine fruit. They may be used as a Ixirdcr near the 
paths, or at the back of the flower border, which is usually arranged 
on either side of the central walk, but there are also other positions 
outside the kitchen garden where they can be placed to aclvantage. 
[f the fruit is well grown such fences present an artistic appearance 
(Fig. 300), and are admissible even in the ornamental garden, or may 
l)e used as a division between the ornamental and the kitchen garden. 

The fences themselves are usually formed of galvanized iron 
posts, with wires stretched between. They require at each end a 
strong post of angle iron with anchor feet and stays, to bear the 
strain of tightening the wire. The intermediate posts need be only 
flat iron with anchor feet. For the ordinary horizontal form of 
training, 5 to 6 feet in height will be sufficient, but if made high 
enough — say 7 to 9 feet — these fences are very good for training 
cordons upon. Gooseberries may also be trained upon low espalier 
fences of 3 to 4 feet in height, and when trained as double cordons, 
or as palmettes with 3 to 5 branches, they produce the linest possible 
fruit ; and this mode is strongly recommended for growing the 
choice dessert varieties. 

277. Wire arches may sometimes be suitably introduced into the 
kitchen garden, spanning some of the paths. They occupy but little 
ground space, ancl afford excellent means for the training of cordons. 
They give a pleasant shade to the path, trees are well supported, 
and the fruit spread out to the full effect of the sun. In some 
respects they are better for training the cordon trees than ordinary 
espaliers. The turn at the top gives the gentle check to the upright 
flow of sap so desirable for securing fine fruit at the base of the tree. 

278. Wooden fences sometimes are so placed as to be available 
for fruit. .\ wooden fence is in no case so good as a wall, as in 
the best of them there is always some draft, so the same uniform 
temperature is not maintained as in the case of walls which, from 
their greater substance, retain warmth during the night. Never- 
theless, wooden fences are very useful for fruit. Thev should always 
be wired before planting the trees, as it is difficult to nail to the 
wooden fences, while wire also possesses other advantages. 

_ Many wooden fences surrounding the gardens of suburban villas 
might be turned to very useful account, and would afford the over- 
wrought brain-worker healthful and interesting employment in cul- 
tivating fruit trees, as well as enable him to supply his own tab'e 
with the freshest of fruit. There are also numberless wooden fences, 
as well as walls,. in many of our farms and homesteads, which could 
be turned to profitable account by covering them with fruit, trained 
as above described. 

279. The pyramid* is an old and good form, suitable especially 
for pear trees. Its advantages are, that it can be cultivated in 



* D. Bois, "Le Petit Jardin," Paris, 264 (279 to 284). 



380 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 

borders, where it takes up relatively little room ; that it allows free 
circulation of air and light ; that it casts little shade ; and that it 
bears abundantly. It consists of a principal or vertical stem, cov- 
ered with lateral branches from a point an inch or so above ground 
to the top of the tree. The branches, which grow somewhat 
obliquely, are separated from each other by a distance of about 10 
inches, diminishing gradually in length from bottom to top, thus 
forming a cone, the largest diameter of which is about one-third 
of the total height. 

280. The column or spindle.— This form, adapted to pears and 
apple trees, has the advantage of taking up less room than the 
pyramid and of bearing more quickly. On the other hand, it is not 
so long-lived, and is suitable for less vigorous varieties only. The 
column differs from the pyramid only in its shorter lateral branches. 

281. The vase. — Around a central stem, and at a distance of about 
5 inches above the ground, arise branches which grow first hori- 
zontally and then vertically, in such a way as to give to the entire 
tree the form of a vase. The branches must be separated from each 
other by a distance of about 10 inches, and they are maintained in 
this position by tying them to hoops fastened to stakes inserted in 
the ground. This form is justly much esteemed. It allows a free 
circulation of light and air through all its parts. 

282. The horizontal cordon is suitable especially for apple trees 
grafted on Paradise stock, and to the less vigorous varieties of 
pear trees grafted on quince stock. This form is especially to be 
recommended for the borders of walks. It consists of a stem which 
first grows vertically, then bent at a certain height, and is main- 
tained in this horizontal position by attaching it to wire. The trees 
are planted at a distance of 6 to 10 feet apart and their stems, when 
meeting, form a long, unbroken garland or wreath, which makes 
a very pretty effect. 

283. Espalier training, to be especially recommended, is suitable 
for all kinds of fruit trees. It allows the cultivation of varieties 
the fruits of which would not ripen at all, or would ripen incom- 
pletely in a more exposed situation. When trained against walls, 
they receive an amount of heat sufficient to produce fruit of a 
superior quality. These include peaches, grapes, certain kinds of 
apricots, apples, pears, etc. The simplest form of espalier is the 
vertical cordon, which allows the trees to be planted very near to- 
gether, which soon brings in a moderate return, and in a few years 
covers the wall. Like the column, this form is suitable for only 
the less- vigorous varieties. It must be trained against a moderately 
high wall, for its growth is considerably stimulated by the suppres- 
sion of its lateral branches, so the principal stem has a tendency 
to grow rapidly. Whenever it is necessary to cut them back very 
much, it produces an excessive development of wood, to the detri- 
ment of its productiveness. A form like a U is frequently em- 
ployed. It is certainly one of the best. 

284. The candelabrum is formed by several lateral branches, from 



ODD METHODS OF PRTNING AND TRAINING 381 

three to six, distributed regularly along the principal stem. The 
simple palmette or palm leaf has a larger number of lateral branches. 
The Palmette Verrier differs from the preceding only in the fact 
that after a certain distance its branches grow vertically. Palmettes 
are formed with G, 7, S, 10, 12 branches, and even with more. 

285. The horizontal cordon in detail.*— Wben grown in a simple 
horizontal cordon, the pear tree consists of a stem bent at a dis- 
tance of 15 inches above ground, then trained horizontally and 
covered with fruit-bearing branches. The cordons are trained 
as much as possible toward the strongest light. If the plantation is 
established on a slope, it is necessary to train the cordons toward 
the summit of the slope. Only pears grafted on quince stock, and 
apple trees grafted on Paradise or Doucin stock, can be thus grown. 

Pear trees and apple trees grafted on their own stock are too 
vigorous, as they require (for otherwise they would remain sterile) 
more room than the horizontal cordon allows. One-year-old apple 
cions grafted on Paradise stock must be planted at a distance of 10 
feet from each other. One-year-old apple cions grafted on Doucin 
stock, and pears on quince stock, must be planted at a distance of 
12 feet from each other. 

The first year they are cut at a distance of about 214 inches above 
ground, and near a bud located on the side toward which the stem 
is to be inclined. In the autumn or in the following spring, these 
cions are gradually bent. But if the part beyond the bend must 
be strictly horizontal, it is necessary that the extremity of the cordon 
be slightly raised, in order to facilitate the flow of sap and con- 
sequently the elongation of the cordon. 

From this time, the yearly growth of the cordon must be cut in 
such a way as to preserve two-thirds or three-fourths of its length. 
It is soon covered with branches, some of which are fertile (that is, 
bearing fruit-producing buds), while the others, or sterile ones, 
must be cut away. This kind of treatment prevents them from ob- 
taining too large a growth, thus still more destroying their fertility. 

286. Cherry growing in orchard houses.f— The method of growing 
cherries in Rivers's orchard houses is given below in detail. Most 
of the trees are grafted on cherry stock, except the Duke cherries 
and Early Rivers and Governor Wood, which are grafted on mahaleb 
stock. They are never lifted nor replanted before potting. 

Early in autumn one and two-year-old trees are taken up, their 
roots shortened so they can be put into the pots without breaking, 
and planted in 8 or 12-inch pots. This potting must be done care- 
fully and the trees must be set so deep the big roots near the sur- 
face will be covered with an inch of soil. Cover the bottom of 
the pots with a good, thick layer of drainage. The soil used in 
potting is a light, sandy loam, enriched with one-third of well- 
decayed fertilizer. It is important to hrm the soil well around 

*G. Ad. Bellair, "Les Arbres Fruitiers," Paris, 1S91, Page 164 (285). 
t A. K. Anderson in "American Garden," XIII, 594 (286). 








FIG 301-TREATED INJURIES NORMALLY HEAL; UNTREATED ONES DECAY 
b!um^fbrkr.!''°oVy^'r''ba?r'B' P"'^j,«'. heart-wood; 6. sapwood; c. cam- 
C, Scar th ree- fourths healed n r^oL ''!.^'""'"S /o hea rapidly at the sides. 
Note decay at ax cut I ?nl tn; . °'® ®*''!'°" ""^ "blaze" on quaking aspen, 
from cut Hmb fully heakS '"'''"*^«.P^°Pe'' shape of cavity to excavate. E, Scar 
sound wood ' Opening to decayed area in log. Only a shell of 



ODD METHODS OF PRUXING AND TRAINING 



383 



and among the roots. Fill it in by degrees and beat it down firmly 
all through the pot, taking care not to injure the roots. After pot- 
ting, the trees are set in a sheltered place outdoors, the pots being 
covered with leaves. If the soil is moist enough when the trees are 
potted, they will not need watering. 

\\ hen spring comes the tree must be thinned out and the pots 
plunged one-third their depth in the earth. The trees remain here 
all summer, are watered carefully every morning when the weather 
is bright and dry and syringed with pure water if the green fly 
is troublesome. In July when the trees are well rooted, a top- 
dressing of stable manure and kiln-dust in equal parts is given 
them. A few days before it is used it is spread out in thin layers 
outdoors and soaked several times with liquid manure. It is applied 
to the soil in the pots, in layers 2 inches thick near the rims, but 
thinner near the stems of the trees. This top-dressing greatly im- 
proves and strengthens the trees for the coming year. After grow- 
ing in pots one summer, trees are fit to be sold the following au- 
tumn or spring. Old cherry trees that have been cultivated in pots 
for years are kept during winter in one of the orchard houses. When 
spring comes and their buds start, the pots are 
plunged up to the rim in the ground in the 
cherry house. 

The pyramidal form is best and most used 
for potted cherry trees. Pruning is not often 
necessary the first year after potting, for the 
strength of the tree goes to form short fruit 
branches ; but after the trees are well rooted, 
strong shoots are sent out in summer. Sum- 
mer pruning consists mainly in pinching back 
these strong shoots to six or seven leaves 
each. If after this first stopping they grow 
out again, they are again pinched back. On 
the leading branches, side shoots that are not 
needed to fill empty spaces or make new 
leaders are stopped at the third leaf. The sour cherries, which form 
young buds better on the side shoots, might be pruned less. 

Much winter pruning is not needed for trees that have been well 
stopped in summer. Winter pruning must be done as soon as leaf 
and bloom buds can be distinguished. It is done upon the same 
principle as outdoor pruning, but as the room in orchard houses is 
limited, all growth must soon be pruned into fruit branches. 

After the cherries are all gathered, the trees are plunged outside 
in a sunny, sheltered place and left there until repotting time in 
October or November. Trees that have been potted but one year 
seldom need larger pots at this time, so 2 or 3 inches of the top 
soil in their pots is taken out and replaced with fresh. Larger pots 
are given in after years when these young trees become root-bound. 
Cherry trees ought to be repotted every other year. 




FIG. 302— .MUTI- 
LATED TO LAY A 
CURB 



CHAPTER XVIII 
PRACTICAL TREE SURGERY* 

287. Object of tree surgery.— It is well known that trees are sub- 
ject to all sorts of injuries, from sources too numerous to mention. 
In a great majority of cases these injuries are allowed to remain 
untreated — often for years. Rot-producing fungi commonly gain 
entrance at these places, and eventually the original inconspicuous 
or unobserved injury develops into a comparatively large area of 
decay. The real aim of tree surgery is to repair the damage re- 
sulting from such neglected injuries and rotted areas. 

288. Principles involved.— In most tree-surgery work a few funda- 
mental principles must be observed to secure good results. These 
may be summarized as follows: (l) Remove all decayed, diseased 
or injured wood and bark. When on small limbs, this can often 
best be done by removing the limb. On larger limbs or on the trunk 
it may at times mean the digging out of a cavity. (2) Sterilize all 
cut surfaces. (3) Waterproof all cut surfaces. (4) Leave the 
work in the most favorable condition for rapid healing. This will 
often mean the filling of deep cavities. (5) Watch the work from 
year to year for defects. If any appear, attend to them immediately. 

289. Qualifications of workmen.— Tree surgery, or, more properly, 
as some interested persons would have tree owners believe, tree re- 
pair work, is not a mysterious art known to only a favored few who 
alone are fitted to undertake it. It can be undertaken by any care- 
ful man who has a good general knowledge of the structure and life 
history of a tree, its normal manner of covering wounds and how 
insects and decay organisms cause damage, provided he can handle 
the necessary tools and will apply in a practical manner his knowl- 
edge of the anatomy of a tree, together with a generous admixture 
of good common sense. 

290. Types and scope of work.— In its simplest type, tree surgery 
consists in removing dead or decayed limbs or stubs from a tree 
and treating the scar with an antiseptic and waterproof covering to 
prevent decay while healing. Another type consists in cutting out 
the decayed and diseased matter in trees and filling the cavities with 
cement or other materials to facilitate the normal healing-over 
process. This is often referred to as "tree dentistry," a term which 
very aptly indicates the character of the work. Filled cavities do 

♦Paragraphs 287 to 311 have been excerpted and slightly condensed from J. T. 
Collins's article in the United States Department of Agriculture Year Book, 1913, 
Pages 162 to 190. Only about half the article is herewith included, because the 
balance deals mostly with physiological and other features already discussed in 
this volume. 

384 



I 




FIG. 303— CEMENT FILLINGS AND GUY CHAIN ATTACHMENT 
A, Cement shattered by cold and swaying of tree. B, Section of trunk showing 
C, Simple way to fasten guy chain to hook holt. 



metal-covered eavit'es. 

and cement-reinforcing rods in place, for filling. 

creosote and tar, not usually cement filled. 



D, Nails 
E, Shallow cavity ready for 



386 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 

not increase the strength of the trunk or Hmb to the extent that is 
generally supposed. 

291. Dead or diseased branches. — For the work of removing 
branches, the most essential implements are a good-sized saw with 
teeth so set as to make a wide cut, a gouge, a chisel, a mallet and a 
strong knife. For cutting limbs near the ground these are the only 
necessary implements. For limbs situated elsewhere a ladder may 
be needed; also, at times, a rope. 

292. Treatment of cavities.— During the last few years there has 
been widespread popular interest in the treatment of decayed places 
in old trees. This type of work comprises many inquiries addressed 
to the Department of Agriculture and refers solely to methods em- 
ployed in cementing cavities. This is a logical result of the present 
extensive essential operations: (1) Removing all decayed and dis- 
eased matter, (2) sterilizing and waterproofing all cut surfaces, and 
(3) filling the cavity in a manner that will favor rapid healing and 
exclude rot-producing organisms. 

The necessary tools for digging out decayed matter are two out- 
side-ground socket-handled gouges (one with a curved cutting edge 
of about y^ inch, and the other perhaps V/2 inches), a chisel, a 
mallet, a knife and an oilstone for ordinary work. The gouges, 
chisel and knife should never be used near the cambium when they 
lack a keen edge, as dull tools will injure it. In cutting out deep 
cavities, longer interchangeable handles for the gouges may be nec- 
essary. A ladder or a stepladder will be required if the vvork is 
more than 5 feet from the ground. 

293. Excavating. — Usually an old decayed spot may be partially 
or wholly covered by a new growth of wood and bark at the edges, 
and the visible decayed area be small as compared with that which is 
hidden (Fig. 301 D, F). In such cases it is usually necessary to en- 
large the opening with the gouges and mallet in order to make 
sufficient room in which to use the gouges in the interior. This 
opening should not be any wider than necessary, but it may be 
sufficiently long to reach all the decayed and diseased heartwood 
with little or no additional injury to the tree. 

If the decayed and diseased wood extends some distance above 
or below the external opening, it is a common practice to cut one 
or more holes above or below the main opening in order to facili- 
tate the removal of the diseased wood (Fig. 305 A). This results in 
one or more bridges of wood and bark spanning the long interior 
cavity, a practice of doubtful value, partly because it is often im- 
possible to see whether the diseased wood has been entirely removed 
from the under side of the bridges, but mainly because there is a 
strong tendency in most trees for the bark and the sap wood of the 
bridges to die and decay as a result of severing the sap-conducting 
tubes both above and below. If the holes are pointed above and 
below, there is less trouble from this source. A practice that permits 
a more thorough cleaning out of the cavity is to make a narrow 
opening, pointed at both ends and sufficiently long to include all the 



PRACTICAL TRfiE SURGERY 



387 



diseased wood. This often extends some distance above and below 
the visible discolored area. 

The most important feature of this stage of the work is to re- 
move all the diseased and insect-eaten wood (Fig. 305 B, C). This 
excavating must continue on all sides of the cavity until sound 
uninfected wood is reached. All discolored or water-soaked 
heartwood should be removed, as this is the region in which the rot- 
producing fungus is most active. In decayed areas of many years' 
standing there may be only a thin shell of uninfected wood around 
the cavity (Fig. 301 F), in which case there is danger of the tree 
being broken by storms unless braced or guyed. 

294. Drainage,— The bottom and all other parts of the cavity 
should be so shaped that if water were thrown into the cavity it 
would promptly run out and none remain in any hollow. This fea- 
ture is commonly called "drainage." It is bad practice to have a deep 
water pocket at the bottom of a cavity with drainage through an 
auger hole bored from the exterior. y\n open hole of this sort often 
becomes a favorable lodging place for insects or fungous spores. 

295. Undercutting. — Another important point in shaping a cavity 
is to have the sides undercut if possible, so as to hold the filling 
firmly in place. Care must be taken, 
however, not to have the wood at the 
edges of the opening very thin, as this 
promotes the drying out of the bark and 
sap wood at these points. Ordinarily tlie 
edges should be at least }i of an inch 
thick, and VA would be better (Figs. 301 D, 
306 A). Inrolled bark at the edges of an 
opening should be cut back in nearly 
parallel radial planes, as a rule, to a point 
which will permit the surface of the 
completed cement filling to conform with 
and continue across the cavity the general 
contour of the woody part of the trunk 
(Fig. 306 A) . If it is not possible to undei - 
cut sufficiently to hold the filling firmly in 

place, the alternative method described under "Naihng" (297) mny 
be adopted (Fig. 306 B). 

Great care must be exercised in working around the cambium, 
and all cutting tools must be kept very sharp. The final cutting along 
the edges of the bark and the sap wood can usually best be made 
with a very sharp knife. This cutting must be followed immediately 
by a coating of shellac, which should cover the edges of both bark 
and sap wood. 

296. Bolting.— Before cementing a long cavity it is advisable to 
place through it one or more bolts, so as to hold the wood and the 
cement more firmly in place. A cavity 2 feet or less in length wdl 
not usually require a bolt, but long cavities, as a general rule, should 




FIG. 304— GOOD HEAL- 
ING OVER PROPER- 
LY PLACED BOLT 
HEAD 





FIG. 305— LONG CAVITIES EXCAVATED THROUGH SEVERAL OPENINGS, AND 
A SHORT CAVITY EXCAVATED THROUGH ONE OPENING 
A, Cavities in two trees excavated through small openings cut in the trunks. It 
would be better to make the openings oval and pointed rather than square or 
round. B, An old injury caused by horses gnawing the bark. C, The injury shown 
in B excavated and ready for tarring prior to filling. 



TRACTICAL TREE SURGERY 389 

be bolted every IS to 24 inches. Often a single bolt can be placed 
so as to support both sides (Fig. 306 B). In certain cavities it may 
be necessary to place bolts at different angles (I'ig. 3()() C). In any 
case a strip of uninjured cambium at least an inch wide should be 
left between the edge of the cavity and the bolt. On medium- 
sized trunks, after deciding where the bolts can most efficiently be 
placed, a very sharp half -inch bit, sufficiently long to reach through 
the trunk and the cavity, may be used to bore the hole for the bolt. 
On large, heavy trunks a larger bit should be used. 

Heavy oval or round iron or steel washers, about three times the 
diameter of the bolt, should be countersunk into the wood by care- 
fully cutting away the bark at both ends of the hole with a sharp 
gouge or a chisel (Fig. 306 B, C, D). The washers should be heavy 
and ample, but not so broad as to necessitate cutting away a large 
piece of bark. In most trees when round washers are used it is 
advisable to have this countersunk area somewhat pointed above and 
below the washer, to hasten healing. By holding the two washers in 
place, the length of the steel machine bolt can be determined by 
measuring through the hole. 

The bolt must be thick enough to fit snugly in the hole and should 
project beyond each washer for at least ^ inch. The thread at 
each end of the bolt must be sufficiently long to permit drawing in 
the sides of the cavity a little, as the nuts are screwed up against 
the washers. A chamfered single-headed bolt may be used, if pre- 
ferred. Before the bolts are finally put in place the countersunk 
cuts and bolt holes should be tarred or creosoted, and after the bolts 
are in place all exposed parts of the bolts and nuts should be tarred. 

All split cavities must be securely bolted, particularly near the 
upper part. If the split comes from a crotch, all decayed and dis- 
eased wood should be removed from the split and creosote and tar 
applied, after which it may be bolted just beneath the crotch, so as 
to close the crack or at least bring the parts back to their normal 
position in case decayed matter has been excavated from the crack. 
If the split is a recent one, a washing of creosote only will usually 
be sufficient before drawing the sides together with bolts. 

Under certain conditions, particularly in large trees, it may be 
necessary to use a rope and tackle blocks to pull the limbs together 
some distance above the crotch, in order properly to close the crack 
before bolting it. When tackle blocks are used, care must be taken 
to have an abundance of bagging or other padding between the bark 
of the limbs and the encircling ropes. AH exposed edges of the 
crack must now be covered with thick tar. Limbs above split 
crotches may be guyed. If there is a cavity in the crotch, the limbs 
above it must be guyed before this cavity is filled. 

297. Nailing. — If the cavity has a comparatively large opening or 
has little or no undercutting, it is the custom to drive flat-headed 
wire nails into the wood in the interior in order to hold the cement 
filling firmly in place. In medium-sized cavities nails 2'/, or 3 inches 
long are usually driven into the wood for about half their length 




FIG. 306— EXCAVATED, BOLTED AND CEMENTED CAVITIES 
A, Cross section of trunk showing new wood and baric growing into unfille 
cavity from margin. Line on wood shows amount of excavating needed. B, Cross 
section of cavity showing way to use single-headed bolt and nails where little or no 
undercutting. C, Cross section of trunk, showing single-headed bolts to brace 
cavity. D, Oval washer showing best method of counter-sinking and bolting. 
(Compare B and C.) E, Cross section of trunk in B cement filled. Cement sur- 
face conforms to general shape of trunk and reaches only to cambium. 



PRACTICAL TREE SURGERY 391 

(Fig. 306 B). The heads of the nails finally are completely embedded 
in the cement (Fig. 300 E). If the cavity is already bolted, it may not 
be necessary to use many nails, because the bolts helj) to liold the 
cement in place. 

298. Treating. — After the decayed and diseased matter has been 
completely excavated and the edges of the sap wood and bark shel- 
lacked, the next step is to sterilize the interior of the cavity in order 
that all germs of disease or decay may be killed and that any v.diich 
may come in contact with the cut surfaces during subsequent opera- 
tions may be destroyed. Creosote appears to be one of the best 
preparations to use. Every cut part of wood and bark must be 
creosoted. Over this a heavy coating of tar or hot asphalt should be 
applied before the cavity is filled. 

299. Mixing the cement. — A good grade of Portland cement and 
clean, sharp sand free from loam (1 part of cement to 3 or less of 
sand) should be used. The mixing may be done in a mortar bin, a 
wheelbarrow, a pail, or in any other available receptacle sufficiently 
large. A quantity of dry cement and sand sufficient to fill the cavity 
should be thoroughly mixed before the requisite amount of water to 
make a rather stiff mortar is added, and the whole mixture worked 
to an even consistency. In large cavities fine gravel, free from loam, 
is sometimes substituted for the sand. 

300. Cementing. — For placing the mixture in the cavity a mason's 
flat trowel and an ordinary garden trowel with a curved blade will 
be found convenient. A tamping stick, 1 or 2 inches thick and 1 
to 3 feet long, according to the size of the cavity, will be needed. 

A layer of cement 2 or 3 inches deep may now be placed in the 
bottom of the cavity with the garden trowel and tamped firmly in 
place. This operation is repeated until the cement is 8 to 12 inches 
thick. Wet rocks of various sizes may be embedded in the cement 
provided they do not reach within an inch or two of its outer face. 
If the mixture is too wet, it will tend to run out of the cavity under 
the operation of tamping. If too little water has been used, it will 
not pack down promptly. 

The top of the 8 to 12-inch block of cement is smoothed with the 
flat trowel so it will slant slightly downward from back to front, 
in order to facilitate drainage. Over the top of this cement block 
a double or a single sheet of tarred roofing (or thinner) paper is 
placed after it has been cut so as to fit the cavity. On top of this 
another block of cement is built as soon as the first block is suffi- 
ciently hard to stand the weight and tamping without forcing any 
of it out at the bottom of the cavity. 

If the interior of the cavity extends well above the level of the 
external opening, it may occasionally be necessary to bore or cut 
a downward slanting hole from the outside to the top of the interior 
cavity, through which a watery mixture of cement may be poured to 
fill the upper part of the cavity and the hole. The main opening 
of the cavity must be completely closed with the stiffer cemeni be- 
fore this watery mixture is introduced. 



392 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



When a block of cement has partially hardened, it will be nec- 
essary to smooth carefully the outer surface or cut it down with 
the flat trowel to the level of the cambium, taking great care 
that the latter is not injured in the operation. If the 
cement is allowed to become too hard to trim with the trowel, it 
can still, with more or less difficulty, be cut back to the cambium 
line with a cold chisel and a hammer. It is a rule with most tree 
surgeons to trim back the outer surface of the cement to ^ inch or 
more below the cambium and then use a layer of stronger cement 
(one part of cement to one to two of sand) to raise it to the level 
of the cambium, after the fdling has partially hardened. 

The thinner mixtures of cement will set more firmly. If any 
mixtures thinner than the one already mentioned are used to fill 
a cavity, some sort of cloth or wire dam will have to be used to 
hold the cement in place until it is hard. For this purpose strips 

of burlap wrapped tightly around the 
tree so as to cover the lower part of 
the opening may be sufficient if the 
mixture is not very thin ; otherwise, 
a more closely woven fabric, such as 
canvas or carpet, may be used. This 
dam at first should cover about a 
foot of the lower part of the open- 
ing. The cavity may then be filled 
with cement to the top of the dam. 

The top is smoothed and covered 
with tarred paper, as already de- 
scribed, the height of the dam is in- 
creased and the operation repeated. 
Before the cement has become too 
hard, the dam is removed and the 
surface of the cement finished in the 
usual manner, either to the level of 
the cambium at once, or it may be 
cut a little farther back and a finish- 
ing layer of stronger cement applied 
to bring the surface to the proper 
level. The surface of the cement 
must be wet before the stronger finishing layer is applied. 

A very large proportion of the cemented cavities seen in trees at 
present are made in one piece, without the use of tarred-paper 
partitions. Long cavities of this sort are particularly subject to de- 
fects, so one-piece fillings are not recommended except for short 
cavities, where these particular objections do not apply. The method 
employed is only a slight modification of that already described 
and will readily be understood by a study of Fig. 308 B, C, D, and 
the legends which accompany them. These figures show successive 
stages of work in the same cavity. 




FIG. 307— HOW NOT TO COVER 

A CAVITY WITH CEMENT 

OR CONCRETE 



^ ^^, 




FIG. 308— CEMENT FILLING TYPES AND SUCCESSIVE STEPS 
A, Cavity filled with cement blocks separated by tarred paper. B, Cavity ready 
for treating and filling. C, Cavity in B, nailed and partly cement filled. Ends of 
reinforcing rods sprung into shallow holes in wood. Wire dam, sometimes allowed 
to remain in cement, though usually removed when cement has partly set. D, Later 
stage of C, height of dam increased. E, Same cavity completed. 



394 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 

The edges of cement fillings in the crotches of limbs are es- 
pecially difficult to keep water-tight. Besides bolting the cavity and 
guying the limbs above it, the crevices at the edges of such cement 
fillings must be made as nearly waterproof as thick tar or asphalt 
can make them. 

After the cement filling has become thoroughly dry, the outer face 
may be painted with coal tar or paint, especially around the edges 
where cracks are likely to appear. This should not be done for 
several weeks after the cement has been put into the cavity. 

301. Defects in cement work.— Although fillings made with ce- 
ment mixtures (cement mortar and concrete) have many, and often 
serious defects, this material is so cheap and so easily handled that 
no other at present is so generally used for the purpose in this 
country. The most serious defects in cement mixtures are directly 
due to the hardness and rigidity after the cement has become dry. 
This inflexibility results in cracks appearing across the cement of 
long fillings (where not put in in sections or blocks, as recommended 
here) as the tree sways back and forth in the wind (Fig. 303 A). 
Rods for re-enforcing the concrete are often placed in large cavities 
to be filled in one block (Fig. 303 D). 

During a cold period in winter, particularly one that has been 
preceded by warm weather, the wood of an unbolted cavity may 
draw away from the cement, often leaving a comparatively wide 
crack (Fig. 303 A). Sometimes, by the contraction of the wood on a 
cold day, the tree itself will split above or below the filling, or even 
through the cement when the cavity has been nailed but not bolted. 
This cracking may be prevented to some extent by having nailed 
cavities with a vertical partition of tarred paper extending through- 
out the length of the filling. 

On the other hand, the cement filling forms a surface over which 
new wood and bark can form during the growing season, and if the 
decayed and diseased matter in the cavity is entirely removed be- 
fore the cement is used, it very largely, if not entirely, checks 
further decay. If cracks appear in the cement, or the wood draws 
away from the cement, or the work is not properly done, decay 
organisms may again gain entrance at the edge of the cement and 
cause further trouble. 

302. Open cavities. — In a tree which is not considered of sufficient 
value to warrant cleaning and filling the decayed areas, these may be 
excavated, sterilized and waterproofed (Fig. 303 E). In this condi- 
tion they may often be safely left for years if the waterproof covering 
is renewed as soon as cracks or blisters appear. Cavities treated in 
this way are probably as safe as ordinary cemented cavities and 
have the advantage of easy inspection from time to time. Shallow 
cavities in valuable trees may be very satisfactorily treated in this 
manner. The new wood and bark produced by the cambium along 
the margins will form an inwardly rolled edge (Fig. 306 A), as there 
is no cement across the cavity. 




FIG. 309— PROPER METHOD OF FASTENING GUY CHAINS AND BOLTS, ALSO 
IMPROPER METHOD OF ATTACHING WIRES 
A, Elm limbs guyed by several independent chains 15 feet above the crotches. 
B, Split crotch guyed by long bolt about 18 inches above the crotch. C, Tupelo tree 
nearly strangled by telegraph wires around the trunk. 



396 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 

303. When to undertake tree surgery. — As a general rule, tree 
surgery may be safely undertaken at almost any time of year when 
the sap is not running too actively and the weather is not cold 
enough to freeze the cement. In most trees the sap will interfere 
with the work only from the time the buds begin to expand in the 
spring until the leaves are full grown. Cement work will be ruined 
if it is frozen before it is hard. It is not likely to be injured by 
frost after it has been drying for a week. 

304. Guying. — Closely associated with the work of tree surgery 
proper, and often an indispensable adjunct, is the guying of limbs 
to prevent the splitting of the crotches or to check further splitting. 
The best place to put these guys depends largely upon the shape and 
position of the limbs to be braced. This varies so widely in different 
trees that it will be impossible to give very specific directions for 
this kind of work. 

A simple method of guying a crotch is to place a hook bolt through 
each limb, with the hooks in the two limbs toward each other and 
from 3 to 10 feet or more above the crotch (depending upon the 
size, position and length of the limbs) and slipping the end link of 
a stoat chain over one of the hooks (Fig. 303 C). While at the 
proper place in the chain to make a sufficiently taut guy a link is 
slipped over the other hook. The rest of the chain may then be cut 
away if desired (Fig. 309 A). 

Modifications of this method may be used where three or more 
adjoining limbs are to be guyed collectively. A simple method is 
to place a hook bolt through each limb at the proper place and then 
hook a link of the chain over each bolt hook at any desired point, 
one of the hooks serving to hold the two end links of the chain. 
The precautions mentioned under "Bolting" (296) should always 
be followed, so far as they apply to boring and tarring the hole and 
countersinking the washers of the bolts. 

A turnbuckle rod or bolt is much better than a chain when the 
guy is to be kept perfectly taut at all times. Furthermore, this rod 
permits a ready tightening of the guy within certain limits should 
it later become necessary. If for any reason the guy is to be placed 
within a foot or two of the crotch, a single long bolt may often be 
used to better advantage (Fig. 309 B), and sometimes a single long 
bolt may be used in place of a chain or a turnbuckle rod where the 
guyed limbs are not likely to twist much as they sway in the wind. 

Occasionally it may become necessary to guy a whole tree in 
order to prevent the breaking of the trunk where "an unusually large 
cavity leaves only a thin shell of sound wood, or to prevent the 
tree from tipping over. This may be accomplished by attaching 
four guy chains or ropes to the tree about half way from the ground 
to the top of the tree and having these slant downward at an angle 
about equidistant around the tree (e. g., on the north, east, south 
and west sides of the tree). 

The method of attaching the guys securely to the posts is im- 



PRACTICAL TREP: SURGERY 



397 



material. The method of attaching them to the tree is important. 
If the guying is for temporary purposes only, two broad bands of 
leather, stout canvas or other strong material, each long enough to 
make a loop at least twice the diameter of the trunk or limb to be 
encircled and 4 to 6 inches wide, may be passed around the tree 
or some favorably situated limb and two adjoining guys attached 
to each loose loop. 

If a more permanent guying is needed, two eyebolts (or hook 
bolts) may be placed through parallel creosoted holes in the trunk 
or the limb about half way up the tree, one about 6 inches above 
the other. The eye of one bolt should be on the opposite side of 
the tree from the other. Two guys from two adjoining posts are 
attached to each eyebolt. The chafing of a limb against a guy may 
be prevented by padding the guy if this latter cannot be so placed 
as to clear the limbs. 

Limbs or trees should never be guyed by passing wires, chains 
or ropes tightly around them. These may eventually strangle the 
portions beyond the encircling band. Encircling fence wires, tele- 
graph wires, clotheslines, or guy wires will act in the same way, 
killing all parts of the tree beyond the wires if these remain tightly 
drawn around the limb or trunk for any great 
length of time — occasionally in less than a 
year (Fig. 309 C). 

305. Trees worth repairing. — Most orna- 
mental and shade trees having only a few dead 
limbs are unquestionably worth attention. 
Others which have many dead limbs or numer- 
ous decayed areas may not be worth the ex- 
pense, particularly if they are naturally rapid- 
growing, short-lived trees. No one can decide 
better than the owner of a tree whether it is 
wrorth the attempt to save it, because usually 
the actual commercial value of an ornamental 
or shade tree has little or nothing to do with 
the decision. It is generally a question merely 
of esthetic value, or historic associations, or 
rarity of the species. A man who has had 
experience in repairing mutilated or diseased 
trees may be able to say definitely whether it 
is possible to save the tree, but the owner, 
who pays the bills, is the one who will have to 
decide whether the tree is worth the price it 
will take to repair it. Often the owner will 

realize a greater degree of satisfaction by having a badly diseased or 
mutilated tree replaced. In expert hands the moving of large trees 
is no longer a hazardous undertaking. 

306. Commercial tree surgery.— The writer's observation of the 
workmen employed in commercial tree surgery leads to the conclu- 
sion that few have any knowledge of the manner of growth of 




FIG. 310— ISN'T THIS 
GHASTLY? 



398 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



fungi which cause disease in trees, or, if they do know something 
about it, they apparently do not allow this knowledge to modify 
their methods appreciably. It is extremely important that special 
precautions be taken when a contagious disease, such as the chestnut 
bark disease, is infecting a tree (because through ignorance disease 
may be spread by infected tools, as in the case of pear blight, 196]. 

307. Ignorant workmen and fakers. — Unfortunately for tree 
owners and the trees themselves, many men who are set at work by 
an unreliable contractor know little or nothing of the fundamental 
principles concerning the life history of a tree. In their ignorance, 
such workmen are likely to make serious blunders through neglect- 
ing to do certain important things, the reason for which they do 
not understand. The faker will always slight any stage of the work, 
no matter how important, if evidence of his neglect can be effec- 
tually obliterated or hidden by subsequent operations. 

There are few more favorable opportunities for practicing frauds 
of this nature than in the operation of filling cavities in trees. The 
decayed and diseased wood may be only partially removed, im- 
proper or no antiseptic coatings used in the cavity, or no proper 




FIG. 311— ROPING A TREE PREPARATORY TO BOLTING 
The ropes in this case were left for several months during the growing season. 
Some began to girdle the large limb at the right. 




FIG. 312— STUDENTS AT WORK IN TREE SURGERY 



400 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 

drainage provided, yet no one can tell the difference after the cavity 
has been filled or covered unless the filling or covering be re- 
moved. A cavity filled with cement or other m_aterial before the 
decayed and diseased wood has been wholly removed is nearly com- 
parable to a tooth from which the decayed matter has been only 
partially removed by the dentist before it is filled. 

308. Misuse of the pruning hook. — Too commonly the ordinary 
workman will get into the top of a tree and use his long pruning 
hook to break off the small dead branches, in the same manner that 
he would use a club for a like purpose. When so used, the pruning 
hook will inevitably cause many injuries to the young bark of ad- 
joining branches and make wounds through which disease and de- 
cay germs may enter. In this manner many new openings for the 
possible entrance of disease may be created in addition to the one 
already existing in the dead branch, for it must be remembered that 
merely breaking off the branch does not prevent decay from con- 
tinuing at this point, while every new bruise or wound may furnish 
a new point for decay to enter. 

309. Climbing devices. — On various occasions we have seen work- 
men in the employ of well-known tree surgery firms repeatedly jab 
their climbing spurs into the bark on horizontal limbs where it 
would have been much easier for them to move about without us- 
ing spurs at all. The use of climbing spurs on trees should be 
avoided, or at least severely discouraged. It would be best if they 
were never used. Every wound made by one of these spurs may be- 
come the center of a new region of decay if conditions favorable 
for the growth of decay organisms exist. The use of spurs should 
be strictly prohibited on all parts of a tree subject to a contagious 
disease above ground, especially if the disease is known to exist 
in the vicinity. A man who uses spurs on the trunk or on limbs 
that may readily be reached by a light ladder should never be al- 
lowed to work on trees. Firms which permit their workmen to do 
this should be classed as undesirable or dangerous .firms to deal with 
and accordingly avoided. Many trees have been irreparably dam- 
aged and leftin far worse condition after ignorant or indifferent 
workmen equipped with climbing spurs and pruning hooks have 
worked in them than if nothing had ever been done to them. The 
edges of the soles and heels of leather shoes, to say nothing of 
protruding nails, commonly cause considerable injury to soft and 
tender bark. Probably the best and safest footwear, from the point 
of view of preventing injury to the tree, is some form of rubber- 
soled shoe, such as tennis shoes or "sneaks." All properly equipped 
firms of tree surgeons have ladders that will reach 40 or 50 feet or 
more into a tree. Ladders, ropes and rubber-soled shoes will al- 
low a man to reach practically every part of a tree that can be 
reached by climbing spurs. 

Reliable estimates indicate that it takes somewhat longer (per- 
haps 25 per cent on an average) to do the required work on a tree 
when ladders, ropes and rubber-soled shoes are used instead of 



PRACTICAL TREE SURGERY 401 

climbing spurs. Consequently, it may be expected that contractors 
will have their workmen use spurs unless these are specifically pro- 
hibited. 

310. Responsibility of tree owners.— Owners who contract with 
a firm of tree surgeons to attend to their trees are occasionally 
quite as much to blame for the resulting poor work as the men who 
do it. This statement refers to those owners who get an estimate 
for having their trees repaired in a proper manner by men who 
make a business of caring for trees and then say, in effect, "I've got 
only half that amount of money for the work, and you will have to 
do it for that or I will get someone else to do it." 

The reliable man who has named a price that will insure at least 
reasonably good work has to do one of two things under those con- 
ditions ; either he must decline to do the work or he must lower 
his price. When these conditions arise the work is often under- 
taken at a reduced price. This generally means that the work has 
to be of a cheaper grade, possibly done by inexperienced men, in 
order that a profit may be realized. A wiser course for the owner 
would have been to put his available money into repairing in a 
proper manner the more valuable of his trees, leaving the less valu- 
able ones untreated. 

With the completion of tree surgery work, owners usually fail 
to realize the importance of keeping close watch of their trees, in 
order that defects which appear in the work may be remedied 
promptly and that new injuries elsewhere on the tree may have 
immediate attention. If a tree is considered by its owner of suffi- 
cient value to warrant having it properly and carefully treated by a 
tree surgeon, it certainly is worth the slight expense of subsequent 
annual or biennial inspection and the immediate repair of newly 
discovered injuries at a time when the expense necessary to keep 
the tree in good condition will be comparatively small. 

311. Contracts. — In order to secure better results in the future 
than have generally been attained in the past, and to put com- 
mercial tree surgery on a basis that will tend to eliminate the fakers, 
owners are urged to have a definite written contract with tree sur- 
geons whom they employ to take care of their trees. The best re- 
sults can generally be attained when payment is to be based upon 
the amount of work done plus the cost of materials used. Probably 
most persons, however, will prefer to have the trees examined and a 
definite price agreed upon liefore any work is undertaken. In either 
case there should be a definite written understanding concerning at 
least certain important phases of the work, in addition to price and 
methods of payment. The following is suggested as a model for 
such contract : 

(1) No climbing spurs shall be used on any part of a tree. 
(3) The shoes worn by the workmen shall have soft rubber bottoms. 
(3) Ordinary commercial orange shellac or other specified dressing 
shall be applied to cover the cut edges of sap wood and cambium 



402 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 

within five minutes after the final trimming cut is made. (4) All 
cut and shellacked surfaces shall be painted with commercial 
creosote, followed by thick coal tar. (5) All diseased, rotten, dis- 
colored, water-soaked, or insect-eaten wood shall be removed in 
cavity work and the cavity inspected by the owner or his agent be- 
fore it is filled. (6) Only a good grade of Portland cement and 
clean, sharp sand in no weaker mixture than one to three shall be 
used to fill cavities. (7) The contractor shall repair, free of ex- 
pense, any defects that may appear in the work within one year. 

Tree owners are urged to remember at all times the axiom : The 
need of tree surgery 15 or 20 years hence may be very largely 
obviated by promptly attending to the fresh injuries of today. 

312. Electrical injuries to trees.— According to G. E. Stone* most 
of the injury to trees from trolley or electric light currents is local; 
i. e., the injury takes place at or near the point of contact of the 
wire with the tree. This injury is done in wet weather when the 
tree is covered with a film of water, which provides favorable con- 
ditions for leakage, the current traversing the film of water on the 
tree to the ground. The result of contact of a wire with a limb 
under these conditions is grounding of the current and burning of 
the limb due to "arcing." The vital layer and wood become in- 
jured at the point of contact, resulting in an ugly scar and some- 
times the destruction of the limb or leader. In a large number of 
tests made by the aid of sensitive instruments with guy wire and 
other connections of wires to trees we have never found any leakage 
during fair weather, or when the surface of the tree is dry. 

313. Preventing injury to trees from wires. — The constantly in- 
creasing use of electricity for various purposes makes necessary a 
more extensive use of wires. These have become a great menace 
to shade trees. The appearance of streets is also hardly improved 
by the increased number of poles and wires, and the legal restric- 
tions as to the height, distance apart, etc., of the wires of the tele- 
phone, telegraph, trolley and electric light companies make the prob- 
lem of maintaining shade trees on the same street with public serv- 
ice corporations a serious one. 

Of all the troubles with which tree wardens have to contend the 
wire problem is often regarded as the worst. Notwithstanding the 
strict laws which some states have adopted in regard to injuring 
shade trees, the agents of some public service corporations often 
have little regard for trees or the laws respecting them. Where 
40-foot poles must carry the wires of three or four public service 
corporations there can be little or no opportunity to preserve the 
natural symmetry of shade trees, especially when low-branching 
trees are planted on the same side of the street with the wires. 

The best solution of the wire problem lies in burying the wires. 
This has been done a good deal in large cities, especially in the busi- 
ness sections. It is an expensive system, however, and those who 

* Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 165. 



PRACTICAL TREE SURGERY 403 

SO strenuously advocate its adoption do not always consider that in 
the end it is the patrons who have to pay for it. 

Another method of preventing injuries is the erection of high 
poles to bring the wires over the trees. This is sometimes df)ne, 
especially where the trees are young or of a species that naturally 
grows low, when a very high pole would be sufficient to clear them 
for many years. The cable system may be used for telephone wires, 
and much injury to trees prevented. Large cables are rather ex- 
pensive to install, but what is termed the "ring construction" system 
may be used to advantage in many instances, particularly in the 
suburbs. In this way it is possible to run a line through avenues 
of fine trees in the country districts without necessitating pruning 
or disfiguration. 

Rights of way for poles on private property back of residences 
are sometimes secured, and by this means the poles and wires may 
be removed from the streets, much to the advantage of the trees. 
But such rights are often difficult to secure, and are not always 
satisfactory either to the public service corporations or the owners 
of the property. The former naturally do not care much for these 
rights of way unless they are legal and permanent, and the owners 
in granting permanent rights run a risk of lowering the value of the 
property. Most of the very high-tension transmission services, 
however, are at present on private property, and seldom interfere 
with trees. High-tension lines are affected seriously merely by close 
proximity to trees ; therefore, these rights of way have to include 
broad strips of land — of course expensive. 

On general principles it is not wise to allow wires to be attached 
to trees, although this is often done. Trolley and electric light wires 
are frequently guyed to trees, but they are a source of danger, since 
injury is likely to occur from the crossing of the wires, and light- 
ning discharges occasionally pass from the wires to the tree, caus- 
ing damage. It is. however, often better to allow this than to endure 
the erection of ugly poles; but proper insulation of the wires should 
be insisted on, although ordinary insulators have little effect on 
lightning discharges. 

The lag-bolt system in common use for guying wires to trees is 
not the best method, for sooner or later the wire and the bolt be- 
come embedded in the tree and cause injury. Moreover, a direct 
metal connection with a tree is objectionable. The block system is 
bi^cter, although it may not in all cases be free from objections. 
In no case should a wire be allowed to pass tightly around a tree, 
as it will girdle it in time. When live wires come into contact with 
limbs, some type of insulator should be employed. There are various 
types, some being effective in preventing injur}- from low-voltage 
lines. 

Wires often accidentally come into contact with trees by the dis- 
placement of poles, particularly on curves, where the strain is very 
great, but much of this injury may be prevented by embedding the 



404 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



poles in Portland cement. It should be pointed out that the ne- 
cessity for guying poles to trees may be obviated in this way. 

Better methods of handling this vexatious question of wires and 
shade trees should be forthcoming in the future, and even at present 
there must be a compromise between the tree warden or city forester 
and the companies as to the best method of wiring through tree 
belts and the amount of pruning allowed. Conditions at present 
favor the corporations, as they are furnishing valuable and nec- 
essary facilities for business, etc. In towns they obtain their fran- 
chises and location of poles from the selectmen with little difficulty. 
The selectmen notify the abutters of any contemplated installations 
of poles and wires or of changes to occur in the systems, and the 
abutters are given a hearing. However, they usually wake up to 
their duty only after the installation of the lines, when the tree 
warden must assume all responsibility for injury to the trees. Fie 
has to choose between two courses — prevent the pruning or permit 
it. In either case the companies can erect the poles and install 
the wires, allowing the wires to burn their way through the trees, 
although this, of course, often causes trouble to the corporation as 
well as to the consumer. In case of injury to trees the warden has 
access to the courts, but most companies are willing to put up with 
a few moderate fines for the sake of the right of way through a 
tree belt. 




FIG. 313— METHODS OF FASTENING WIRES TO TREES 
A, Wire attached to lag bolt and protected from tree by blocks; a, cross section. 
B, Loose wire loop fastened with clamp and separated from tree by blocks; 
b, cross section. C, Attachment of trolley guy wire. D, Wire loop tightly placed 
around trunk will produce girdling. E, Blocks used in A and B, showing groove 
at c. 



CHAPTER XIX 



REJUVENATION OF NEGLECTED TREES 

314. Will it pay to renovate neglected trees? — To an- 
swer this question satisfactorily depends on the answering 
of many other questions which no one is better able to 
ans\ver than the owner of the trees. Doubtless many 

trees that it would not 
pay financially to reno- 
vate might be saved 
without difficulty, as 
discussed in the chap- 
ter on tree surgery 
(Chapter XVIII), 
when the question of 
cost to do the work 
and cost to maintain 
the tree in after years 
are set aside. As a 
general proposition, 
however, it will not 
pay to renovate neg- 
lected orchard trees for 
such reasons as the 
following: The cost of 
filling cavities and the 
risk of breakage after 
such work has been 
done are too great to 
\v a r r a n t the outlay ; 
the number of vacant 
spaces in a neglected orchard due to the loss of trees 
beyond profitable repair may be so large that the amount 
of time required to cultivate the whole area, with perhaps 

405 




FIG. 314— NEGLECTED TREE HARD TO 

SPRAY AND HARVEST 

Trees like this should be pruned to open the 

head and remove superfluous branches. 



406 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



50 per cent or more of the tree positions vacant, would be 
too great to make the venture profitable ; the trees may 
have grown so tall and become so bare below from close 
planting and improper pruning that their tops cannot be 
lowered with reasonable assurance of success, even when 
the removal of each alternate tree would leave the 
balance spaced properly. Such points as these can be 
determined only after examination of the trees and the 
orchard area they occupy. To fill vacancies with young 

trees is by no means a 
sane practice in all or 
even in many cases; 
for the combination of 
old and young trees in 
a given area is sure to 
be unsatisfactory — the 
old trees will die or 
will have to be cut out 
at irregular intervals, 
and if their places are 
filled by new trees the 
manage ment of the 
orchard will be diffi- 
cult, to say the least. 
Far better choose a 
new area, as a rule, and 
start afresh with young 
trees. 

315. Renovation problems other than pruning. — Besides 
the mere pruning and handling of the trees themselves, 
several questions must be considered in orchard renova- 
tion. Among them are the general thrift and health of 
the trees as affected by insects and diseases. Examina- 
tion will show whether trees are afifected by borers, San 
Jose or other scales, fire blight of pear and quince, black 




FIG. 315— OLD PEACH TREE 
REJUVENATION 



BEFORE 



REJUVENATION OF NEGLECTED TREES 



407 




knot of plum and 
cherry, yellows or ro- 
sette of peach, etc. In 
some cases the ^whole 
tree should be burned, 
in others only the af- 
fected branches ; in still 
others spraying will be 
sufficient. How to 
make cuts, what wood 
to leave and what to 
remove, how to recog- 
nize "blind" wood and 
"fruiting" wood. etc.. 
are points already dis- 
cussed in previous 
chapters. 

316. How to determine the health of the trees. — Trees 
often fail to thrive even when no disease or insect, such as 
those just mentioned, have played havoc with them. 
Something ails them. It may be lack of moisture in the 
soil, nearness of hard- 
pan to the surface, lack 
of fertility in the soil, 
"bark binding" of the 
trunk and branches 
(114), or some other 
cause that affects the 
nutrition, 
amination 
cover the 
most cases 



FIG 



316— OLD PEACH AFTER CUTTING 
BACK SEVERELY 



Careful 
should 
cause, 
one of 



ex- 

dis- 

In 

the 

surest signs that the 
roots are in good con- 
dition, though the top 
is in trouble, is the 
abundance of suckers 



r 






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^^"^tjk 


mMf^ 


\ j 


Zr 


^/ 





FIG. 317— OLD PEACH TREE REJUVEN- 
ATED. FIRST SEASON'S GROWTH 
AFTER CUTTING 



408 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



around the base of the trunk and water sprouts on the 
main branches (Fig. 32). 

317. Successful cases. — While it is a fact that because 
of such reasons as those given above, attempts to reno- 
vate or rejuvenate neglected orchards w^ould often prove 
unremunerative, especially in the hands of an inexperi- 
enced fruit grower, it is nevertheless true that in the older 
settled parts of the country, w^here orchards were planted 




FIG. 318— ORCHARD BEFORE RENEWAL OR RENOVATION 

by a former generation and ne^glected by the present one, 
countless orchards which for years had not merely been 
practically profitless to the owners, but had also been a 
menace to the neighboring plantations because they were 
breeders of insects and diseases, have been re-established 
on a profitable basis by judicious rejuvenation, soil fer- 



REJUVENATION OF NEGLECTED TREES 



409 



tilizing and cultural methods, and this often In only two 
or three years of vigilant attention. 

The most notable cases of such work that have come 
under my observation are the half dozen or more run- 
down orchards bought up or rented for a term of years 
by Dr. Frank H. Lattin of Albion in western New York. 
In some cases the areas were so infested with under- 
growth that the neighbors facetiously suggested that Dr. 




FIG. 319— CAUGHT RED HANDED! 
Note the havoc both in the trees and on the ground. But see Figs. 4 and 321 for 

final judgment. 

Lattin cut the trees down and rely for his profits on the 
raspberries and blackberries growing among the trees, 
the tops of which were veritable brush piles. But so 
easily and inexpensively was the work of reclamation 
performed, so profitable did the orchards become, and in 
so short a time, that these same neighbors said it made 
their heads swim! It must be remarked, however, that 



410 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



in these orchards the trees in most cases had merely been 
neglected; they had not been butchered (Figs. 61, 201 to 
204) so that their trunks and main branches had decayed 
heartwood. No, they were mostly sound to the center. 

318. Renovated orchards quicker to respond than 
young trees. — When conditions such as these exist, it is 
often if not usually possible to secure profitable returns 
in a shorter time (fewer years) than when a new orchard 
of the same kinds of fruit is set. Of course, the younger 




FIG. 320— TREES AFTER CUTTING. RUBBISH HAULED AWAY 

the trees and the better they have been trained for the 
first few years, the more likely is success to be achieved 
and the longer are they likely to continue profitable under 
good management. With apple, pear and sweet cherry 
trees that are sound it is often well worth attempting to 
rejuvenate specimens fifty to seventy-five years old, or 
even older in exceptional cases; but if badly made 
wounds have resulted in rotting of the heart wood, trees 
may be worthless for rejuvenation when only fifteen or 



REJUVENATION OF NEGI.ECTED TREES 



411 



twenty years old. With peaches, apricots, nectarines, 
plums and sour cherries, which arc considered short- 
lived trees and moreover are quick maturing, the chances 
are that in neglected orchards borers, San Jose scale, 
black knot and other pests may have weakened the 
specimens so seriously that it will be best not to attempt 
rejuvenation, but to destroy the trees and make a new 
plantation on land as far as conveniently possible from 
the neglected ones. 

319. Vigor of tree is the important point to seek : age 





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FIG. 321— FIRST SEASON'S GROWTH AFTER PRUNING. MEN THINNING 

FRUIT 
Note new growth and height of tree. 

is merely incidental. Vigor is indicated by the condition 
of the roots and the branches during winter and the color 
of the leaves during summer. Unless the roots are good. 



412 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



the case is very doubtful of success. Don't be disturbed 
by the small dead branches in the top. They have died 
probably for lack of light or because of pest injury. Pay 
special attention to the suckers and the water sprouts 
(Fig. 32). The former indicate the vigor of the roots, the 
latter of the branches and the trunk. Judicious spraying 
will exterminate most of the insect and disease enemies 
and give the trees a clean bill of health. Carefully save 
the water sprouts until after all dead and incurably 
diseased wood has been removed ; then thin them out, 
exercising care to leave those that will fill in the blanks 
where limbs have been removed. 

In every orchard each tree must be studied as an indi- 
vidual problem. Some specimens will need little pruning, 

but the majority will 
probably need a great 
deal. Just how much 
to do will depend upon 
the amount of dead 
and diseased wood in 
the top, whether or not 
the top must be low- 
ered, and the number, 
size and position of the 
water sprouts. Trees 
in fairly normal condi- 
tion and of already 
convenient height will 
need only normal 
pruning; those with abundant dead wood and excessive 
growths may have to be heavily pruned, and those too 
high for effective spraying, economical thinning and 
harvesting may have to be dehorned (Fig. 320). 

When a high-topped tree with no water sprouts to fall 
back upon must have its head lowered, then to rely on a 
light pruning would be a mistake, because it would not 
force the water sprout growths desired. A severe 



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FIG. 322~ISOLATED APPLE TREE BEFORE 
PRUNING 



REJUVENATION OF NEGLECTED TREES 



413 



pruning of the top is indicated in such cases, the idea 
being to force the development of such adventitious 
growths. The needless stubs may be cut off tw^o or three 
years later. It is not wise at once to cut off the limbs at 
the points to be chosen ultimately — "two or three years 
later" — because there are not enough water sprouts and 
small branches to utilize the plant food forced up by the 
roots. 

On the other hand, when there are plenty of water 
sprouts placed well down on the trunk and the main 




FIG. 323— ISOLATED APPLE TREE AFTER BEING PRUNED 

branches, the tops may be dehorned. Here again good 
judgment is necessary. So many trees are needlessly 
dehorned that it seems necessary to say that w^hen a tree 
has a fairly good top better lower it a little at a time, 
taking three to five years to do the work, by cutting out 
small limbs in the top each year. Thus the trees should 



414 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 



not be thrown out of balance, and they should not only 
improve steadily, but yield more or less fruit during the 
process of rejuvenation. 

320. "Dehorning" apple trees is a term used to describe 
the severe reduction of the tops of old and neglected trees 
by the removal of large limbs, especially in the upper 
parts of the top (Fig. 30). To a greater or less extent the 
proposition is the same, though less frequently practiced 
with other fruit trees (Fig. 31). Jarvis has so well 
handled this type of case* that his remarks are quoted 
as follows : 




FIG. 324— SAME TREE AS IN FIG. 323 THE SUMMER AFTER PRUNING 

"Most trees are too high and may be greatly improved 
by cutting back the upper branches. A tree that is 30 
feet or over in height often may be shortened by 10 or 15 
feet, and one between 25 and 30 feet often may be cut 
back to about 15 or 20 feet. The horizontal branches, as 



♦ Connecticut (Storrs) Bulletin No. 61. 



REJUVENATION OF NEGLECTED TREES 415 

well as the upright ones, may be cut back to advantage, 
especially with trees lacking in vitality, and also those 
infested with scale. In heading-back the upright 
branches, the cut is usually made just above a side 
branch that points outward. This tends to make the 
tree more spreading in habit. With trees that are 
naturally spreading, and where a more upright growth 
is desired, the cutting may be done just beyond an up- 
right side branch. If this method is followed with all 
horizontal branches, a much stronger structure will be 
the result. The severity of heading-in will depend largely 
upon the vigor of the tree. Nothing will start a tree into 
renewed vigor like severe pruning during the dormant 
season. The cutting back, therefore, should be more severe 
with weakened trees. With moderately vigorous trees, 
there is danger of producing a rank growth in the 
form of watersprouts. If it is desirable severely to head- 
back such trees, it is better to do it gradually, a little each 
year, and withhold all nitrogenous fertilizers. A still 
better plan would be to remove about half of the required 
amount of brush during the winter, and the remainder 
during the growing season. The effect of summer prun- 
ing upon the vigor of the tree is just the opposite of 
winter pruning, and will counteract the stimulating effect 
of the latter. With most of the neglected orchards, 
however, the vitality is so low that most of the pruning 
may be done, without fear of injury, during a single 
dormant season. 

"The severity of cutting-back will also depend upon 
the presence of scale. The work of spraying is greatly 
simplified and the chances for success in controlling the 
scales are greatly enhanced by extreme methods of 
pruning. 

"After the trees have been sufficiently headed-in. all 
dead and diseased branches should be removed, and also 
such other branches as are necessary to produce a condi- 
tion favorable to the free circulation of air and the admis- 



416 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING 

sion of sunlight. While it is possible to overdo the 
pruning process, especially with the best of neglected 
orchards, the average man is more likely to err in the 
other direction." 



INDEX 



Page 

A 

Age of shoot..... 53 

Alderman, quoted • V * oV oaf 

American Gardening, quoted.. 95, 6»l 

Anderson, quoted 1 ' j ' ' ' oni 

Ann. Ecole, Nat. Agr., quoted... 307 

Annual bearing by pruning 118 

Ann. Sci. Nat. Bot., quoted...... 117 

Apple experiments in Netherlands 170 

Apple fruit buds -J^ 

Apple pruning ^4^ 

Apple pruning experiments 89, i"^ 

Apples annually 11° 

Apples, pruning dwarf -^oa 

Apricot fruit buds o^ 

Apricots, pruning mature ^o* 

Arbor grape training ^;f» 

Arches for trees °'^ 

Australian observations ^^o 

B 

Bailey, quoted 34 

Baldwin bud studies _. '^ 

Baldwin orchard consecutive 

bearing • 118 

Baldwin pruning experiments 109 

Bark-bound trees 121 

Batchelor. quoted 117 

Bearing affected by pruning • 5 

Bearing habit dictates style of 

pruning 241 

Bearing vs vigor ^i& 

Bedford, Duke of, quoted lib 

Bellair, quoted 381 

Blake, quoted • • • f f J 

Bioletti. quoted 296. 309, 331 

Blackberry buds 76 

Blackberry pruner 148 

Blackberry pruning ^Vi iqc 

"Bleeding" of vines, etc... 13, 14, 13.^ 

Blight, pear • 248 

Bloom buds, ornamental aaa 

Boddy, quoted 1°5 

Bois, quoted ^79 

Bolting '^'^l 

Booth, quoted ' 

Bramble buds 76 

Bramble pruning ._ ^79 

Branch distribution and size ^^8 

Branch length 282 

Bridge grafting "* 

Bud, fruit, development o" 



Page 
Buds affected by pruning, ringing, 

etc 110 

Buds defined 52 

Buds, pome fruit 57 

Buds, pruner must know where 

borne 52 

Buds, recognizing fruit 64 

Buds, resting 29 

Buds, where borne 52 

Bundles, fibro-vascular 20 

c 

California bulletin, quoted 

296, 309, 326, 331 
California citrus convention, 

quoted 238 

California grape training 331 

Callus 127 

Candelabirum training 380 

Card, quoted 179 

Castle's experiments 92 

Cavities, excavating 386 

Cavities, open 394 

Cay wood grape training 328 

Cell functions 6 

Cells 6 

Cementing cavities 391 

Cement defects 394 

Chandler, quoted 258 

Chautauqua grape training 325 

Cheal, quoted 377 

Cherries, pruning mature 251 

Cherries, recommendations for. . 218 

Cherries under glass 381 

Cherry fruit buds 57, 64 

Cherry tree, history of 37 

Chlorophyll 23 

Citrus Convention, quoted 287 

Citrus pruning 23.5 

Cleveland forester, quoted 165 

Climate, influence on pruning 8S 

Collins, quoted 384 

Colorado bulletin, quoted 176 

Columnar trees ■ 380 

Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci., <i^o^^°^ 

Constructions Ij-l 

Contracts, surgery 401 

Cook, quoted 160 

Corbett, quoted 89 

Cordon, horizontal ^81 

Cordon, horizontal dwarf ^8" 

Cordons, horizontal grape ^46 

Cordons, vertical, grape 346 



418 



INDEX 



Page 

Country Gentlemen, quoted 155 

Crab tree, history of 43 

Cranefield, quoted 280 

Cross-wise grape training 331 

Crotch splitting prevented 40 

Crotches, avoiding balanced 199 

Crozier, quoted 6 

CultTura, quoted 170 

Currant buds 74 

Currant pruning 287 

Custom based on principle 212 

D 

Defoliating grapes 307 

Dehorning trees 414 

Dewberry buds 76 

Dickens, quoted 116 

Diffusion 11 

Disbudding grapes 306 

Double-headed vines 345 

Drainage, cavity 387 

Dressings, wound 154 

Drinkard, quoted 66, 106, 110,116 

Drying, effect of 227 

Du Breuil, quoted 375 

Duke of Bedford, quoted 116 

Dwarf apple pruning 369 

Dwarf tree pruning 364 

E 

Electrical injuries 402 

English author, quoted 377 

English pruning experiments 

89, 92, 116 

Espalier fences 378, 880 

Evergreens, pruning 362 

F 

Fakers, tree surgery 397 

Fan grape training 326, 345 

Farmers' Bulletin, quoted 282 

Fences for trees 379 

Fleet, quoted 237 

Forbes, quoted from Gardeners' 

Chronicle Ig 

French investigator, quoted 299 

French writer, quoted 375 

Frame branches, choosinj? 195 

Fruit bearing vs season of 

pruning 118 

Fruitfulness affected by growth.. 56 
Fruitfulness from shortening 

_ twigs 115 

Fungi in grape wounds 308 

G 

Garden and Forest, quoted 280 

Gardeners' Chronicle, quoted... 17, 18 

Georgia Bulletin, quoted 170 

Girdled trees 17, m, i3g 



Page 

Gladwin, quoted 320 

Goff, quoted ,.',".'.86, 95 

Gooseberry buds 74 

Gooseberry pruning ]" 289 

Gooseberry tree, big .' . .' 293 

Goumy, quoted .'.'.'.'.'..' 117 

Gourley, quoted '.'.'.'.". 72 

Grafting, bridge 144 

Grafting wax '/_ 143 

Grape buds !.!!!!!! 76 

Grape, leaf area of .' 26 

Grape planting ,[ 335 

Grape staking [ . . 33g 

Grape, time to prune 299 

Grapes under glass 352 

Grape units 293 

Growth relations and proof 26, 56 

Guying 396 

H 

Harper-Adams college experiments 92 

Hawaii report, quoted 260 

Head, height of 191,221 

Heading back effect on stockiness 103 

Heads, low ig3 

Head, time to form 210 

Heads, types of 188 

Health, determining tree 407 

Hedges 355 

Hedrick, quoted 107, 369 

Herbaceous pruning of grape.... 305 
High renewal grape training.... 323 
Horizontal cordon grape training 335 
Horticultural Science Society, 

quoted 102 

Howe, quoted I07, 159 

Hudson grape training 327 

Huxley, quoted 6 

I 

Ide, quoted 170 

Injuries, electrical .".".'.'.'.' 402 

Injuries, kinds of , 133 

Irons, climbing ', 400 

Italian investigator, quoted 308 

J 

Journal of South Australia, 

quoted lie 

K 

Kains' Propagation book, quoted 

„ . 7, 20, 143, 167, 274, 364 

Kansas Bulletin, quoted 116 

Keffer, quoted 79, 265^ 811 

Kentucky Bulletin, quoted 313 

Kniffin modifications 320 

Kniffin training 314 

Knives ,'...'. 148 

Knots, how formed 125 

Keuka grape training 333 



INDEX 



419 



Page 

L 

Label wire injuries 138 

Leader headed trees 190 

Leader modified 190 

Leaf formation 29 

Lemon pruning 237 

"Le Petit Jardin" 879 

"Les Arbres Fruitieres," quoted.. 381 

Lewis, quoted 186 

Life in girdled trees 17 

Light, relation of leaves to 31 

Limbs, how to remove large.... 137 

Limbs, when to cut big 134 

Linemen damage trees 87 

Locality, influence on pruning. ... 83 

London Hort. Sec, quoted 293 

Low heads 1°3 

M 

Maryland, quoted 106 

Massachusetts Bulletin, quoted 

106, 402 

Michigan experiments, quoted.. 260 

Mills, quoted 236 

Missouri Bulletin, quoted 258, 261 

Mules peel trees _. . . 18 

Multiple cross-wire grape train- 

'iK •••:■: 329 

Munson grape traming. . .^.^ di» 

Muscadine grape "bleeding" 14 

Muscadine grape training 330 

N 

Nailing 389 

Nebraska Palletin, quoted....... 157 

Newman on vine "bleeding".... 14 

New Hampshire Bulletin, quoted 72 

New Jersey Bulletin, quoted 224 

New York Bulletin, quoted 

107, 159, 320, 369 
Netherland Pomological Society, 

quoted • • • j^O 

Nursery trees, trunk lengths of. . 172 
Nursery trees, when to prune. . . . 171 

o 

Oaks, peeled 17 

Ohio Circular, quoted. . .158, 162, 165 

Orange pruning 286 

Oregon Bulletin, quoted 186 

Ornamentals bloom season 359 

Ornamental trees and shrubs 354, 357 

Osmosis 11 

Overhead grape training. .. .328, 829 

Owners' responsibility 400 

P 

Paddock, quoted 107. 176 

Parrales grape training 329 

Peach fruit buds 57 

Peach on Marianna stock 7 



Page 

Peach pruning 256, 258 

Peach pruning experiments 261 

Peach rejuvenation 273 

Peaches, recommendations for. . . 220 
Pear experiments in Netherlands 170 

Pear fruit buds 57 

Pear orchard, old dwarf 366 

Pears, pruning mature 246 

Pears, recommendations for 215 

Pear tree barked 18 

Petri, quoted 308 

Phloem 20 

Photosynthesis 25 

Pickering, quoted 89, 116 

Pit fruit buds 57 

Planting methods 178 

Plant Propagation book, quoted 

7, 20, 143, 167, 274, 364 

Plum fruit buds 57, 62 a 

Plums, pruning mature 252 

Plums, recommendations for 219 

Pole pruners 148 

Pome fruit buds 57 

Poplar shoots 30 

Poplars peeled by mules 18 

"Practical Fruit Culture," quoted 377 

Pressure, hydrostatic 13 

Pressure, sap 13 

Protoplasm 6 

Prunes, recommendations for.... 219 

Pruning aims 81 

Pruning a life saver 41 

Pruning, defective 5 

Pruning defined 1 

Pruning effects 38 

Pruning excessive 40 

Pruning in Bible times 1 

Pruning, injudicious, destroys 

f ruitfulness 56 

Pruning, season of 193 

Pruning, summer experiments.... 117 

Pruning systems and ideals 3 

Pruning vs no pruning of grapes 79 
Pyramids 379 

Q 

Quality affected by pruning: 5 

Qiiince 249 

Quince buds 80 

Quinn, quoted 116 

R 

Raspberry buds 76 

Raspberry, pruning black 281 

Raspberry, pruning red 279 

Ravaz, quoted 801. 307 

Recherches sur les bourgeons 117 

Rejuvenation, old orchard 405 

Rejuvenation of peach 273 

Renewal, grape training 323 

Renovation, vine 348 

Repairing, trees worth 397 

Revue de viticulture, quoted.... 299 



420 



INDEX 



Page 
Rhode Island report, quoted.. 175, 179 

Ringing experiments 106 

Riviere, quoted 307 

Root hair functions 8 

Root losses in transplanting.... 9 

Root pruning 91 

Roots, extent of 10 

Roots, fibrous 8 

Roots, tap 8 

Rotundifolia grape "bleeding"... 14 

s 

Sablon, quoted 107 

Saws , 150 

Scars, meaning of, on spurs.... 54 

Selby, quoted 158 

Shade trees 354 

Shears 149 

Shoot, age of 53 

Simpson quoted from Gardeners' 

Chronicle 17 

Soc. Nat. Hort. (France) quoted 307 
South Carolina Bulletin, quoted 14 

Spacing frame limbs 195 

Spacing plants 33 

Spindle-formed trees 380 

Sprouts on felled trees 19 

Spur grape training 327 

Spur renewal grape training.... 324 

Spurs, fruit 54 

Staking grapes 338 

Starns, quoted 170 

Staz. Sper. Agr. Ital., quoted... 308 

Stem extension 29 

Stomata 15 

Stone fruit buds 59 

Stone, quoted 402 

Stringfellow pruning 168 

Stripping experiments 106 

Stub pruning 174 

Stub-root pruning 168 

Suckering grapes 307 

Summer pruning 337, 338, 343 

Summer pruning experiments.... 117 
Summer pruning non-bearing 

trees 202 

Summer pruning of grape 305 

Surgery, when to do 394 

T 

Taille Hative au Taille Tardive, 

quoted 301, 302 

Telephone linemen 87 

Tennessee Bulletin, quoted 

79, 265. 311 
Texas Farm and Ranch, quoted . . 170 

Thinning by pruning 118 

Thinning grape shoots 306 

Timber improved by peeling bark 17 

Tools, pruning 146, 309 

Tomato pruning 89 



Page 

Topping grape shoots 306 

Top-worked trees , 274 

Transpiration of water 14, 15 

Transplanting, pruning at 173 

Transportation of water 16 

Tree surgery 384 

Trellis, grape 309 

Types of heads 188 

u 

Umbrella grape training 331 

Undercutting 387 

Unilateral grape training 335 

Units of grape pruning 296 

Utah Bulletin, quoted 117 

V 

Vase-formed trees 188, 380 

Vase-formed vines 845 

Venation, leaf 22 

Vidal, quoted 299 

Vigor, determining tree 411 

Vine pruning, California 350 

Vine renovation 348 

Vine supports 310 

Virginia Bulletin, quoted.. 66, 106, 116 

w 

Walnuts, recommendations for. . 220 

Washington Bulletin, quoted 85 

Water, absorption of 8 

"Water branches" 19 

Water, functions of 7 

Water-sprouting grapes 307 

Waugh, quoted 258, 259 

Wax, grafting 143 

Wells, J. Q., orchard record 118 

West Virginia Bulletin, quoted 

89, 102 

Whip pruning 174 

Whitten, quoted 170, 261 

Winter pruning grapes 337, 341, 343 

Wire label injuries 138 

Wisconsin Bulletin, quoted ....80, 280 

Woburn experiments 89, 116 

Wound dressings 154 

Wound healing experiments 157 

Wounds, kinds contrasted 125 

Wounds on grapes 308 

Wounds, rational 128 

Wounds, where to make large. . . . 133 

X 

Xylem 20 

Y 

Year Book, quoted 384 

Yeomans's pear orchard 366 

Y-crotches, danger from 140 






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